Modernization of Agriculture Koichi Fujita CSEAS, Kyoto University Japan

Green Revolution Development and diffusion of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) or Modern Varieties (MVs) of the major staple food crops; mainly rice and wheat in the tropical regions since the mid-1960s. Salient features of HYVs (MVs) 1) Responsiveness to chemical fertilizers; High yielding 2) Short stem; Not fell down even if lots of fertilizers is given. 3) Non (Weak)-photosensitive; enabling double (triple) cropping in a year. 4) Suitable to favorable water and soil conditions; Weak to unfavorable conditions such as drought-prone, flood-prone, salinity soil, etc.

Development of HYVs (MVs) Wheat Mexican semi-dwarf wheat varieties were developed and disseminated from CIMMYT in Mexico. Rice IR-8 (‘miracle rice’) and other HYVs were developed and disseminated from IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) at the Philippines. Both CIMMYT and IRRI are the international research institute under CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research). Role of National Agricultural Research Institutes In each country, such as BRRI and BARI in Bangladesh They conducted basically the locally adapted research.

Process of Diffusion (1) Wheat In the northwestern part of India (Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh) and Punjab in Pakistan, Mexican semi-dwarf wheat HYVs were rapidly accepted since the mid-1960s. The above regions had suitable conditions as follows. 1) Construction of canal irrigation network during the British period. 2) Completion of land consolidation program in the 1950s, which solved problems arising from land fragmentation. 3) Introduction of tubewells by almost all the farmers, overcoming the irregularity of irrigation by the government canals. 4) Dominance of medium-sized owner farmers in the regions, because they were new settlers after the canal construction. Wheat replaced pulses (such as gram) or mixed cropping of wheat/pulses.

Wheat Production in India

Process of Diffusion (2) Rice In insular Southeast Asia, such as the Philippines and Indonesia, rice HYVs started to diffuse rapidly after the mid-1960s. In the northwestern India too, after about a decade of wheat HYV diffusion, rice HYVs started to diffuse in kharif season, replacing coarse cereals such as jowar (sorghum) and bajira (pearl millet). In eastern India and Bangladesh, rice HYVs started to diffuse rapidly in the rabi season, with an accelerated dissemination of Shallow Tubewells (STWs) since the 1980s. By contrast, rice HYVs was not largely accepted in Thailand, where high-quality jasmine rice (Kao Honmali) spread for export market. In Vietnam, grew as the second largest rice exporter in the world, rice HYVs rapidly diffused after the 1990s.

Rice Production in Major Asian Countries

Rice Yield in Major Asian Countries

Some Important Facts about Rice Green Revolution Rice yield was already high in Japan and Korea at 4-5 tons/ha by 1960. It was low in other Asian countries at 1-2 tons/ha in 1960. In China rice yield started to increase rapidly before the Green Revolution in tropical Asia. In Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka, the rice Green Revolution first reached since the mid-1960s. In India and Bangladesh, rice yield started to rise rapidly only after the 1980s, which lagged behind the insular Southeast Asia for more than a decade. Vietnam was a last runner for the rice Green Revolution, only after 1986 when economic liberalization policy was announced. However, Vietnam attained a very rapid yield increase of rice, which contributed the fact that Vietnam became a second largest exporter of rice in the world. Rice yield in Bangladesh continued to rise after the 1990s, while it relatively stagnated in India during the same period.

Roots of the Green Revolution Wheat Norin 10 (developed by the Japanese government) was used as one of the parents. Rice There were many local improved varieties developed by leading and hard-working farmers in Edo era. After the Meiji restoration in 1868, such local improved varieties diffused in whole Japan, and raised average rice yield from 2 to 3 tons/ha by the 1920s. Since 1924, the Government established a well-organized rice research and experimental system, which developed better varieties with high yield. On the other hand, Japanese government started to disseminate improved varieties in Taiwan first, and then in Korea, both are the colonies of Japan. One of the developed varieties in Taiwan was used as one of the parents for developing IR8.

Food Production in sub-Saharan Africa: A Failure Case

Factors of Success of Rice Green Revolution Water control (irrigation, flood control and drainage) ‘Leading input’ (S. Ishikawa) Rural infrastructure (road, market, electricity, irrigation, etc.) Cheaper inputs and higher prices for products Rural electrification: water pumps including tubewells Canal irrigation Supply of modern inputs Chemical fertilizers (N/P/K) Pesticides, Insecticides, herbicides Agricultural machineries (power tiller/tractor, threshing machine, weeding machine, water pump, combine harvester, rice mill) Agricultural finance

Initiatives by Government or Private? First stage of the Green Revolution Strong government initiatives Package of seed (HYVs), chemical fertilizers, insecticides and finance BIMAS/INMAS (Indonesia) Monopoly by government agency (such as BADC in Bangladesh) Problems emerged Low repayment rate of loans Dominance of large and rich farmers Inefficiency of chemical fertilizers distribution Privatization In Bangladesh, privatization started since the late 1970s Emergence of micro-credit by NGOs since the mid-1980s

Effects of the Green Revolution (1) Decline of real price of rice

Effects of the Green Revolution (2) Implications of decline of real rice price Poverty alleviation for the net rice purchasers Prevention of wage rate increase Bad effect for farmers? Smoothing seasonal rice price fluctuations Reducing seasonal poverty Increased employment opportunities for agricultural laborers Increased income in rural areas Making outlet market for domestic manufacturing industries and other non-agricultural sectors including service sectors. Saving of foreign exchange for food import

Problems of the Green Revolution Damage to the environment Water pollution due to chemical fertilizers and pesticides/insecticides Deterioration of soil fertility Reducing bio-diversity Bad taste Monopoly of technology by large and rice farmers? Scale neutral? Small farmers adopt the technology more than large farmers. Increasing inequality and social unrest? Change of harvesting system in Java, Indonesia (and the Philippines)

END