Durkheim The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life and The Rules of Sociological Method

How to know what religion is? all religions can be compared to each other to identify “ many elements which are common to all.” all religions share the following elements:

1. Beliefs: They divide the world into two domains: Profane: (every-day objects and events) Sacred: (supreme in dignity and power)

2. Rituals Social practices or manners of acting. They involve interdictions, or restrictions. They “prescribe how to comport in the presence of the sacred objects.” For instance, even today one has to follow certain rituals before entering a Mosque or a Church, or any place which is considered to be sacred

Totemism: The simplest form of religion Totemism was studied by ethnologists among Australian tribes. Totem normally consisted in an animal or a plant which identifies them.

Totem exhibits a moral force In relation to totem, things are classified and given power. This extraordinary power compels individual to act respectfully and out of obligation and is protected by rules, and rites.

Our ordinary “totems”! Our whole social environment seems to us to be filled with forces which really exist only in our own minds.

Durkheim’s examples: The flag is in itself, is only a piece of cloth.

A sacred symbol Canadian flag symbolizes ideals we consider to be sacred (such as the unity of the country, its integrity and independence etc.)

Human blood: is only an organic liquid “but even to-day we cannot see it flowing without feeling a violent emotion which its physico-chemical properties cannot explain.”

The sentiments inspired by these totems are in no way produced by their physical characteristics. Any object might fulfill this function. The sacred character, thus, is not implied in the intrinsic properties of the totems rather it is added to them.

Collective representations: attribute to the things qualities which do not exist under any form or to any degree. Out of the commonest objects they can make a most powerful sacred beings.

Totem displays a material force The material form of totems represents an immaterial substance, an energy, force. If an individual comes into contact with them without respecting the proper rules he/she feels a veritable material force, a shock.

collective representation is in a sense delirious A “state in which the mind adds to the immediate data given by the senses and projects its own sentiments and feelings into things” “nearly every collective representation is in a sense delirious.”

Delirium and ecstacy Being “transported into a special world, entirely different from the one where” we ordinarily live.

Rituals and the public ceremonies Durkheim describes them as the place where the totems derive their force and meaning. The sentiments produced in these ceremonies resembles an ecstasy which “removes them (the participants) from their ordinary life.”

O Canada! The Canadian anthem is an example of what we consider as sacred today. The respect that it inspires is reinforced by the everyday ritual of singing it at the schools. O Canada Our home and native land ….

“A state of effervescence” “changes the conditions of psychic activity.” “Vital energies are over-excited, passions more active, sensations stronger; there are even some [totems and sacred believes and symbols] which are produced only at this moment.”

“When arrived at this state of exaltation, a man does not recognize himself any longer. Feeling himself dominated and carried away by some sort of external power.”

Durkheim concludes that the collective force of society is “ritualistic”, that is, created in occasional associations in forms of ceremonies

Transforming the environment “In these moments a “man … transforms the environment which surrounds him” “He attributes to the things with which he is in most direct contact properties which they have not, exceptional powers and virtues which the objects of every-day experience do not possess.”

Symbols are the objectified forces of collectivity “The intense social life cannot endure because it is an ecstatic experience it can last only a limited length of time without symbols.” “Symbols are necessary if a society is to become conscious of itself, assuring the continuation of this consciousness.”

Our trouble today! “If we find a little difficulty to-day in imagining what these feasts and ceremonies of the future could consist in, it is because we are going through a stage of transition and moral mediocrity.”

A state of incertitude and confusion the old gods are growing old or already dead, and others are not yet born. “A day will come when our societies will know again those hours of creative effervescence, in the course of which new ideas arise and new formulæ are found which serve for a while as a guide to humanity”

Human Dignity The core value of modern societies: “the sanctity of human beings.” “But a person, from the physical point of view, differs only in degree from animals.

Yet society conceives human beings, “as sacred and worthy of dignity and respect although we can find nothing in the empirical nature of man which justifies it. “

The Rules of Sociological Method Durkheim: The Rules of Sociological Method

Examples of Social Fact: Duties: The system of Signs [Language]: The monetary system: Social Roles:

I am not forced to speak French with my compatriots, nor to use the legal currency, but it is impossible for me to do otherwise. If I tried to escape the necessity, my attempt would fail miserably.

First Characteristic: Externality These facts exist outside the consciousness of the individual. They existed before I did, [prior in time] Are not developed by ourselves, but come to us from outside [external origin] All function independently of the use I make of them [independence]

Second Characteristic: Coercive Power (Constraint) They can only penetrate us by imposing themselves upon us. If I attempt to violate the rules of law and morality, social conventions, I am restricted by: Punishments The public conscience the laughter the social distance

Internalization If this constraint in time ceases to be felt it is because it gradually gives rise to habits, to inner tendencies.

Education of a child From his earliest years we oblige him to eat, drink and sleep at regular hours, and to observe cleanliness, calm and obedience; later we force him to learn how to be mindful of others, to respect customs and conventions, and to work, etc.

Social Institutions and Processes Beliefs and practices already well established and crystallized in well defined social organizations (social institutions) Social 'currents‘ (social processes) such as crowds, public gatherings, and public opinion which have the same characteristics of social facts (i.e. externality and constraint)

A public gathering: Stadium Enthusiasm, indignation and pity that are produced have their seat in no one individual consciousness

We feel differently when we are alone The impression we have experienced is utterly different from what we would have felt if we had been alone.

The power of collectivity Once the assembly has broken and we are once more on our own: the emotions we have felt seem an alien phenomenon, one in which we no longer recognise ourselves.

Individuals who are normally perfectly harmless may, when gathered together in a crowd, let themselves be drawn into acts of atrocity.

The force of the public opinion Certain currents of opinion, impel us, for example, towards marriage or suicide, towards higher or lower birth-rates, etc. Such currents are plainly social facts.

The Final Definition: “A social fact is any way of acting, whether fixed or not, capable of exerting over the individual an external constraint.”

“Social facts must be treated as things” imply not a category of reality (i.e., social facts are not like natural things) but a certain mental attitude toward them.

What is a “thing”? what we know from without [not from within]….thus cannot be discovered by introspection, that is, by looking inside one’s own mind, interests and feelings rather it requires data from outside.

A state of mind (objectivity) The sociologist should assume the state of mind of the natural scientists, that is: 1. He/she should not pretend that he/she already knows these facts. 2. he/she should not rely on the individual’s motivations in order to explain social facts.

An example In the last centuries the family has changed: A subjectivist and individualist explanation will assume that changed occurred because: It brings about a happier life for everyone involved, i.e. “a perfect reconciliation of the interests of parents, children, and society.”

Sociological Explanation: The problem with the above approach is that it ignores other social structural influences such as economic changes which have a strong influence on the family life.

The cause of a social fact must be sought among antecedent social facts We should trace back the causes of the family change to the state of economy, religion, culture, etc.. In the case of family crisis it should be related to the state of social integration and social regulation.

Objections to Durkheim His definition of social facts conceives: 1. individuals as passive subjects 2. social life merely as a constraining power and not as rewarding and enhancing power.

Durkheim’s response: 1. Society is composed of individuals, and individuals are the only active elements therein. Yet “society is not the mere sum of individuals” “by aggregating together… individuals give birth to a being …which constitute a psychical individuality of a new kind.”

“society is not the mere sum of individuals” For instance water is composed of two active elements: Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). When they are associated in a certain combination (H2O) they produce something which is totally different from the original elements.

2. “the goodness” of social facts He says that it is true that social facts: “..we love them.. we cling to them…we find our welfare in them” Yet “the good is some what more subjective, more intimate than duty, less easily grasped [this is why, Durkheim explains, “we have not previously described social facts in terms of [them]

Human nature and social life Durkheim admits that “it is clear that the general characteristics of human nature (sympathy and sociability for instance) play their part” in creating social life.

“Human nature” is mostly a social construction However, he adds, there is no proof that “the tendency to sociability was originally a congenital instinct of the human race. It is much more natural to see in it a product of social life.”

A concluding note: You should, however, note that not all sociologists share Durkheim’s belief that an internal moral power (conscience), or consciousness (the subjective interpretation of meanings), are not distinctive characteristics of human action.