Chapter 15 Speaking to Persuade Oral Communication 2311 Communication Principles for a Lifetime By Beebe, Beebe, & Ivy Oral Communication 2311

Chapter Outline Persuasion Defined Motivating Your Audience: The Psychology of Persuasion Selecting and Narrowing Your Persuasive Topic Identifying Your Persuasive Purpose Developing your Central Idea as a Persuasive Proposition Supporting Your Presentation with Credibility, Logic, and Emotion Organizing Your Persuasive Messages How to Adjust Ideas to People and People to Ideas Learn the functions of persuasion Understand how persuasion works Meet the challenges of persuasive speaking Select a design for your persuasive speech

Persuasion Defined   Persuasion is the process of attempting to change or reinforce a listener’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior. Persuasion is the process of attempting to change or reinforce a listener’s attitudes, beliefs, values, or behaviour. Using force to achieve your goal is unethical and called Coercion, which is the use of force to get another person to think or behave as you wish; coercion is unethical because it takes away free choice. Ethics And Hidden Agendas: It is not ethical to have a hidden agenda when delivering a presentation. Some people may give a presentation about something but may have a completely different purpose, which is not ethical.

The Audience Centered Model of Presentational Speaking The Audience-Centered Model of public speaking (see Chapter 11) can help you design and deliver you’re a persuasive presentation. In this model, the presentational speaking process proceeds as follows where “consider the audience” is the centre of this model: Select and narrow topic identify purpose develop central idea generate main ideas gather supporting material organize presentation rehearse presentation deliver presentation Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

The Persuasive Speaker invites the listener to make a choice, rather than just offering information about the options. asks the audience to respond thoughtfully to the information presented. tries to change or reinforce the listeners’ feelings, ideas, or behavior

Motivating Your Audience: The Psychology of Persuasion

Motivating with Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Is the sense of mental disorganization or imbalance that may prompt a person to change when new information conflicts with previously organized thought patterns. When you are presented with information that is inconsistent with your current thinking or feelings, you experience a kind of mental discomfort called cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the sense of mental disorganization or imbalance that may prompt a person to change when new information conflicts with previously organized thought patterns.

Motivating with Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow’s classic theory that humans have five levels of needs and that lower level needs must be met before people can be concerned about higher-level needs As a speaker, the better you understand what your listeners need, the better you can adapt to them and the greater the chances that you can persuade them to change an attitude, belief, or value, or get them to take some action. Abraham Maslow developed the classical theory of human needs. This theory has important applications for persuasion. He suggested that a hierarchy of needs motivates the behaviour of all people. His theory defines five levels of needs and argues that lower-level needs must be met before people can be concerned about higher-level needs:

Motivating with Fear Appeals One of the oldest ways to convince people to change their minds or their behavior is by scaring them The appeal to fear takes the form of a verbal message.. “if you don’t get a flu shot, then you will probably get the flu Strategies used: threat to family member or someone audience cares about the more respected the speaker the greater likelihood that the appeal to fear will work fear appeals more successful if audience is convinced the threat is real and will affect them One of the oldest ways to convince people to change their minds or their behaviour is by scaring them into compliance. The appeal to fear takes the form of a verbal message, an “if-then” statement (If you don’t do X, then bad things will happen)

Motivating with Positive Appeals          Positive motivational appeals are verbal messages promising that good things will happen if the speaker’s advice is followed The key to using positive appeals is to know what your listeners value Positive motivational appeals are verbal messages promising that good things will happen if the speaker’s advice is followed.

Strategies for Positive Appeals Americans value Comfortable, healthy lifestyle Successful goals Peace Happiness Contentment Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Selecting and Narrowing Your Persuasive Speech Topic The best persuasive topic is one that you feel strongly about Know the local, state, national and international issues that interest your and affect your listeners Find interesting and appropriate supporting material for your presentation After you have chosen a topic for your persuasive message, keeping up with media (TV, Radio, Newspapers, Magazines, and the Internet) can give you additional ideas for narrowing your topic and for finding interesting and appropriate supporting material for your presentation.

Identifying Your Persuasive Speech Purpose Identify a General Purpose- to persuade Identify a Specific Purpose – your specific purpose will target your audience’s: attitude (learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably; a like or dislike) belief (sense of what is true or false) value (enduring conception of right or wrong) Once your topic is selected, your next step is to identify both a general and a specific purpose. The former is easy to persuade, the latter requires more thought and should target your audience’s attitudes (likes/dislikes), beliefs (true/false), values (right/wrong or good/bad), or behaviour.

Developing Your Central Idea as a Persuasive Proposition A proposition is a statement with which the speaker wants their audience to agree. There are three categories of propositions: Proposition of Fact- A claim that something is or is not the case or that something did or did not happen Proposition of Value- a claim that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something Proposition of Policy- a claim advocating specific action to change a policy, procedure, or behavior 5.1. Propositions Of Fact A claim that something is or is not the case or that something did or did not happen. -People who were abused by their parents are more likely to abuse their own kids. -Nuclear power plants are safe and efficient. 5.2. Propositions Of Value A claim that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something. -Small high schools are better than large high school. -Rock music is better than classical music. 5.3. Propositions Of Policy A claim advocating a specific action to change a policy, procedure, or behaviour. -The city should build a new public library. -All students should have their own laptop computers.

Challenge Question Alex delivers a presentation at the Faculty Senate meeting supporting a change in the way honors graduates are selected. Alex’s central idea is a proposition of Fact. Value. Policy. Attitude. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Answer Alex delivers a presentation at the Faculty Senate meeting supporting a change in the way honors graduates are selected. Alex’s central idea is a proposition of Fact. Value. Policy. Attitude. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Supporting Your Presentation with Credibility, Logic and Emotion Aristotle defined “rhetoric” as the process of discovering the available means of persuasion. There are various strategies that you can use to support your message. Ethos- the credibility or ethical character of the speaker Logos- logical arguments Pathos- emotional appeals Aristotle defined ‘rhetoric’ (public speaking/speech-making) as the process of “discovering the available means of persuasion.” What are those “available means”? They are the various strategies you can use to support your message. Aristotle suggested three: (1) emphasizing the credibility or ethical character of a speaker (he called this ETHOS); (2) using logical arguments (LOGOS); and (3) using emotional appeals to move an audience (PATHOS).

Ethos Establishing Credibility Credibility-an audience’s perception of the factors of credibility the speaker’s competence trust-worthiness dynamism charisma Your listeners determine if you have credibility Quintillian, a Roman teacher of public speaking, advised that a speaker should be “a good man speaking well” 6.1. Ethos: Establishing Your Credibility If you were going to buy a new computer, to whom would you turn for advice? Perhaps you would consult your brother, your roommate, or a computer specialist. In other words, you would turn to a source that you consider knowledgeable, competent, and trustworthy-a source you think is credible. Credibility is the audience’s perception of a speaker’s competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. 6.1.1. Competence reflects whether the speaker is perceived as informed, skilled, and knowledgeable about the subject he/she is discussing. 6.1.2. Trustworthiness reflects whether the speaker is perceived as believable and honest. 6.1.3. Dynamism is the audience’s perception that a speaker is energetic (maintains eye contact, has an enthusiastic vocal inflection, moves and uses gestures purposefully). Charisma (charm/personality) is a form of dynamism. A charismatic speaker possesses charm, talent, and attractiveness. Diversity And Communication: “Elementary Reasoning, My Dear Watson” People may draw different conclusions from the same evidence (see story Page 393) 6.1.4. Enhancing Your Credibility The speaker has opportunities throughout a presentation to enhance his/her credibility. This includes the following 6.1.4.1. Enhancing Your Initial Credibility (Before You Speak) Initial Credibility is the impression of a speaker’s credibility that listeners have before the speaker begins to speak. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: 1. Dress appropriately. 2. Have a brief summary of your qualifications and accomplishments ready for the person who will introduce you 6.1.4.2. Enhancing Your Derived Credibility (As You Speak) Derived Credibility is the impression of a speaker’s credibility based on what the speaker says and does during the presentation. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: 1. Establish common grounds with yours audience. 2. Support your arguments with evidence. 3. Present a well-organized message. 6.1.4.3. Enhancing Your Terminal Credibility (After You Speak) Terminal Credibility is the final impression listeners have of a speaker’s credibility after the presentation has been concluded. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: Prepare your conclusion, and deliver it well. Maintain eye contact through and even after your closing sentence. Be prepared to answer questions after your presentation.

Enhancing Credibility Dress appropriately Summarize qualifications and accomplishments Before You Speak Establish common ground with audience Support your arguments with evidence Present an organized message As You Speak Prepare conclusion and deliver it well Maintain eye contact even after final sentence Answer closing questions After You Speak 6.1.4. Enhancing Your Credibility The speaker has opportunities throughout a presentation to enhance his/her credibility. This includes the following 6.1.4.1. Enhancing Your Initial Credibility (Before You Speak) Initial Credibility is the impression of a speaker’s credibility that listeners have before the speaker begins to speak. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: 1. Dress appropriately. 2. Have a brief summary of your qualifications and accomplishments ready for the person who will introduce you 6.1.4.2. Enhancing Your Derived Credibility (As You Speak) Derived Credibility is the impression of a speaker’s credibility based on what the speaker says and does during the presentation. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: 1. Establish common grounds with yours audience. 2. Support your arguments with evidence. 3. Present a well-organized message. 6.1.4.3. Enhancing Your Terminal Credibility (After You Speak) Terminal Credibility is the final impression listeners have of a speaker’s credibility after the presentation has been concluded. To enhance this type of credibility, you should do the following: Prepare your conclusion, and deliver it well. Maintain eye contact through and even after your closing sentence. Be prepared to answer questions after your presentation. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Logos Using Evidence and Reasoning In addition to being a credible speaker, you will gain influence with your audience if you use logically structured arguments (logos) supported with evidence. The goal is to provide logical proof for your arguments. Proof consists of evidence and reasoning. Evidence- material used to support a point or premise Reasoning- the process of drawing conclusions from evidence 6.2. Logos: Using Evidence And Reasoning The literal translation for the Greek word ‘logos’ is ‘the words’. Using words effectively to communicate your arguments to your listeners is vital to persuading them. The goal is to provide logical proof for your arguments. Proof consists of both evidence and reasoning. Evidence includes illustrations, definitions, statistics, and opinions used to support your point or premise/idea/argument. Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions from your evidence. There are three major ways to draw logical conclusions: inductively, deductively, and causally.

Reasoning Inductive reasoning- using specific instances or examples to reach a probable general conclusion Reasoning by analogy- reasoning that draws comparisons between two ideas, things, or situations that share some essential common feature Deductive reasoning- moving from one general statement or principle to reach a certain specific conclusion Syllogism- a three-part way of developing an argument: includes a major premise, and a conclusion Causal reasoning- relating two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others 6.2. Logos: Using Evidence And Reasoning 6.2.1. Inductive Reasoning This involves using specific instances or examples to reach a probable general conclusion. (my brother and my friend each drove their own Honda for more than 10000 miles without any minor repair. Hondas are reliable cars) Reasoning by analogy is a special type of inductive reasoning. An analogy demonstrates how an unfamiliar idea is similar to something the audience already understands. (because the reasons for A and B are similar the results must be similar; because England does not allow violence to be shown on TV which helps reduce any rise in violent crimes, the USA should therefore do the same to prevent the frequent rise in violent crimes) 6.2.2. Deductive Reasoning. That is to move from a general statement or principle to reach a certain specific conclusion. Deductive reasoning can be structured as a syllogism (a three part argument that consists of a major idea, a minor idea, and a conclusion) Major idea: keeping schools in good repair extends the number of years that the buildings can be used. Minor idea: the proposed school bond issue provides money for school repairs. Conclusion: the proposed school bond issue will extend the number of years that we can use our current buildings. 6.2.3. Causal Reasoning. Relating two or more events in such a way as to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others. There are two ways to structure a causal argument: by reasoning from cause to effect. (he studied hard yesterday, so you predict that he would pass the exam today. Studying hard is the cause, and passing is the effect) by predicting a result from a known fact or reasoning from effect to cause. (reconstructing airplane wreckage helps find clues to the cause of an air disaster)

Fallacies in Reasoning There are several fallacies, arguments that do not follow the rules of logic and therefore are not believable Persuasive speaker should avoid logical fallacy (myth/misleading notion), that is trying to persuade the audience without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate. You should be, therefore, aware of the following common types of logical fallacyLogical On The Web (The following website contains several reasoning fallacies with examples: www.philosophypages.com/lg/index.htm

Fallacies in Reasoning 1. Causal fallacy. Making a faulty cause-and-effect connection between two things or events. 2. Bandwagon fallacy. Suggesting that because everyone believes or does something, it must be valid, accurate, or effective. 3. Either-or-fallacy. Oversimplifying an issue as offering only two choices, ignoring other possible and reasonable solutions. 4. Hasty generalization. Reaching a conclusion without adequate supporting evidence. 5. Personal attack. Attacking irrelevant personal characteristics of someone connected with an idea, rather than addressing the idea itself.

Fallacies in Reasoning 6. Red herring. Irrelevant facts or information used to distract someone from the issue under discussion. 8. Appeal to misplace authority. Using someone without the appropriate credentials or expertise to endorse an idea or product. (baseball players/actors endorsing cereal/credit cards in TV commercials) 9. Non sequitur -Latin for “it does not follow” an idea or conclusion that does not logically follow the previous idea or conclusion =Using an irrelevant reason.

Pathos Using Emotion Pathos involves an appeal to audience’s emotion by: Use emotion-arousing words = arousing verbal messages Use concrete illustrations and descriptions to create emotional images Use visual aids to evoke both positive and negative emotions = nonverbal messages When you use emotional appeals, you have the obligation to be ethical and forthright. Avoid making false claims, misusing evidence or images, or relying exclusively on emotion.

Organizing Your Persuasive Message Problem and Solution - organized by first discussing a problem and then its various solutions Cause and Effect- This strategy helps either identify a situation and then discuss the resulting effects (cause-effect), or present a situation and then explore its causes (effect-cause). Refutation – This is an organizational strategy by which you identify objections to your proposition and then refute/prove false those objections with arguments and evidence. The Motivated Sequence- devised by Alan Monroe, an organizational pattern for planning and presenting persuasive speeches that involves five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action

Problem and Solution Problem: Reading is a dying activity. a. Each year more than 500 courts hear arguments to ban books. b. Since 1990, more than 2000 libraries across America have closed. c. Leisure reading has decreased more than 50% since 1975. II. Solutions: A. Teach children the beauty of reading B. Support “One City One Book” C. Give books as gifts Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Cause and Effect Cause: The foster care system is in crisis. A. Since 1987, there has been a 90% increase in children placed in foster care. B. During that same time, there has been a 3% decrease in the number of licensed foster homes. Effect: Children in foster care are at risk. A. Children in foster care are five times more likely to die of child abuse. B. 80% of federal prisoners spent time in the nation’s foster care system as children. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Refutation Suppose, for example, that you plan to speak to a group of high school teacher, advocating a school reconfiguration that would send the teachers to a middle school. They would undoubtedly have some concerns about their status and welfare, as well as issues of loyalty to their present administrators. You could organize your presentation to this group according to those 2 issues. Your major points could be as follows: A. The school reconfiguration will not jeopardize any of your jobs or programs. B. Principals and lead teachers will be reassigned at their same levels in the schools to which they will move. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Action Visualization Satisfaction Need Attention Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence This is a five step plan for organizing a persuasive message. It is based on attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. It is also frequently used in TV advertising: 1. Attention: the first step is to get your audience attention (you may use rhetorical questions, illustrations, startling facts or statistics, quotations, humorous stories, and references to historical events) 2. Need: after getting your audience’s attention, establish why your topic, problem, or issue should concern your listeners. 3. Satisfaction: After you explain a need or problem, identify your plan or solution and explain how it will satisfy the need. 7.4. The Motivated Sequence Technology And Communication: The Motivated Sequence In Television Advertising (See Page 402)

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence 4. Visualization: now you need to give your audience a word picture of the future that expresses a sense of what it would be like if your solution were adopted (positive visualization), or conversely, if it were not adopted (negative visualization). 5. Action: the final step of the motivated sequence is to offer your audience a specific action to take in order to solve the problem you have discussed. (See Page 403 for an example on the motivated sequence)

How to Adjust Ideas to People and People to Ideas Strategies for persuading The Receptive Audience Identify with your audience, Emphasize similarities and common interests Provide a clear objective; tell audience what you want them to do and ask for immediate support Appropriately use emotional appeals

How to Adjust Ideas to People and People to Ideas Strategies for persuading The Neutral Audience Gain and maintain your audience attention “hook” them with the introduction Refer to universal beliefs and common concerns that are important to listeners Show how the topic affects them and people they care about Be realistic about what you can accomplish

How to Adjust Ideas to People and People to Ideas Strategies for persuading The Unreceptive Audience Don’t tell listeners that you are going to try to convince them to support your position. Present your strongest arguments first acknowledge opposing points of view that audience may hold don’t expect a major shift in attitude or behavior, be realistic Sample Persuasive Presentation: Cruisin’ Out Of Control (See Page 406)