Chapter 2 The Child’s Perspective

Childhood studies and children’s perspectives The field of Childhood Studies recognises that childhoods are not unitary; rather, they are plural and that even within a single nation there is great diversity in the social construction of childhood. The idea of a standard childhood is no longer acceptable and it is widely agreed that the conditions of contemporary childhood have undoubtedly changed in the twenty-first century (Prout, 2011). Childhood Studies draws on a range of disciplines including anthropology, psychology and sociology, and what is referred to as the ‘new sociology of childhood’. The new sociology of childhood had a huge impact on how children were viewed.

Childhood studies and children’s perspectives The new sociology of childhood led to a move from adults’ constructions of childhood to a focus on children’s own perspectives and an increasing participation of children in all aspects of life (Smith 2011). Children are now recognised as social actors and informants in their own right (Hendrick, 2008). Therefore children are no longer seen as passive subjects in the world but rather as active in the construction of their social lives. Childhood is recognised as a special phase of life rather than simply a preparation for adulthood and children themselves are recognised as being competent and capable (Christensen and Prout, 2005). Agency is one of the key features of the new sociology of childhood where children are perceived to have the capacity to understand and act upon their world. Therefore children are viewed as active agents who construct their own cultures (Corsaro, 2005).

Dichotomous views of childhood It is suggested that the new sociology of childhood led to the creation of ‘mantras’ within the UK such as recognition and focus on children’s agency, voice, experience and participation (Tisdall and Punch, 2012). However, Prout (2011) argued that emphasising children as ‘beings’ risked endorsing the myth that children are autonomous and independent. Rather, both children and adults should be seen as ‘becomings’ in which all are incomplete and dependent. Cregan and Cuthbert (2014) discuss current views of children including ‘children in crisis’ and ‘endangered childhoods’. They highlight the anxiety about children’s lives including issues such as child obesity, the sexualisation of children, the impact of technology, children’s mental health and many others. This notion of children in crisis does not sit comfortably alongside the notion of children as autonomous and strong.

Focus on theory - The sociocultural approach Barbara Rogoff (2003) argues that individuals develop as participants in their cultural communities and, therefore, development happens not just within individuals but within group and community processes. Therefore, if we want to understand learning and development, we have to study it within family life and community practices. She highlights the importance of taking different perspectives of people from different cultures and communities and she highlights the value of learning from both ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’ from these communities. All of these perspectives provide an angle on the phenomena being studied which helps to build understanding.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and children’s perspectives This changing view of children as competent, strong and knowledgeable owes much to the mandates of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child [UNCRC] (UN, 1989). The UNCRC is the most ratified international convention and its 54 articles cover civil, economic, social and cultural rights for children and young people. Ratifying countries are obligated to turn the rights into reality (Tisdall and Punch, 2012). The ratification of the UNCRC in the UK in 1991 represented a potentially dramatic shift in approaches to children’s rights including the right to be heard. Article 12 (para 1) states that: Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child. (UN, 1989)

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and children’s perspectives General Comment No. 7, Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood (UN, 2005), gave prominence to the view that young children are holders of all rights enshrined in the Convention and that early childhood is a critical period for the realisation of these rights. General Comment No. 12, The Right of the Child to be Heard (UN, 2009) clearly elucidated that the right of all children to be heard and taken seriously constituted one of the fundamental values of the Convention. General Comment No. 14, emphasised that the fact that the child is very young does not deprive him or her of the right to express his or her views, nor reduces the weight given to the child’s views in determining his or her best interests (UN, 2013).

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and children’s perspectives Lundy (2007, p931) asserts that inviting children’s perspectives is ‘not an option which is the gift of adults, but a legal imperative which is the right of the child’. Freeman (1983, p32) highlights how rights are particularly valuable ‘moral coinage’ for those without other means of power and the UNCRC has been advantageous for children in that it has brought together international law pertaining to children and young people into one binding instrument. It has led to advocacy for children and young people at local, national and international levels and, at its core, it promotes the rights of children and young people (Tisdall and Punch, 2012). However, despite the legal pressure and the strong vision outlined in government policy there is still a divide between the rhetoric and the reality of listening to the views and interests of very young children (Dunn, 2015).

Challenges and tensions in listening to young children’s perspectives It is suggested that questions, tensions and challenges continually emerge as part of the dynamic relationship between children’s rights, children and society (Jones 2011). One of these challenges is the potential conflict between children’s right to participate and their right to protection. Alderson and Morrow (2011, p36) assert that whilst protection is important, ‘over-protection can lead to children being treated as passive objects of concern rather than as active moral agents in their own right’ and they further highlight the dangers of silencing children and ending their hope of influencing policy and practice.

Methods for seeking children’s perspectives in research Should research with children be the same or different and does participatory research with children really require ‘child-friendly’ methods? Punch (2002) suggests that child-friendly methods are necessary due to children’s lack of power in interactions with adults. However, Christensen and Prout (2002) argue for the concept of ‘ethical symmetry’ which is grounded in the belief that children are both similar to adults and unique. Therefore, commonality and difference is recognised. Dockett, Einarsdottir and Perry (2011) further explain that assuming ethical symmetry does not mean that researchers regard adults and children as the same but that it focuses on using appropriate methods that emphasise the particular competency of the research participants.

Children’s involvement in the research process A number of arguments have been presented on the benefits of involving children in research. These include pedagogical benefits (what children themselves learn from the experience), political potential (the potential for children to change policy) and epistemological benefits (the potential for children to produce improved understandings and therefore better research) (Davis 2009). These perceived benefits have led to researchers working with children as co- researchers where children may be involved in any number of research phases from design to dissemination (Kellett 2010).

References Alderson, P. and Morrow, V. (2011) The Ethics of Research with Children and Young People: A Practical Handbook (2nd edn). London: Sage. Christensen, P. and Prout, A. (2002) ‘Working with Ethical Symmetry in Social Research with Children’, Childhood 9(4): 477–497. Christensen, P. and Prout, A. (2005) ‘Anthropological and Sociological Perspectives on the study of children’, in S. Greene and D. Hogan (eds), Researching Children’s Experience. London: Sage. pp42–60. Corsaro, W.A. (2005) The Sociology of Childhood (2nd edn). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine-Forge Press. Cregan, K. and Cuthbert, D. (2014) Global Childhoods, London: Sage. Davis, J., (2009) ‘Involving Children’, in E.K.M. Tisdall, J.M. Davis and M. Gallagher (eds), Researching with Children and Young People. London: Sage. pp154–167. Dockett, S., Einarsdottir, J. and Perry, B. (2011) ‘Balancing methodologies and methods in researching with young children’, in D. Harcourt, B. Perry and T. Waller (eds.) Researching Young Children's Perspectives. London: Routledge. pp68–81. Dunn, J. (2015) ‘Insiders’ perspectives: a children’s rights approach to involving children in advising on adult-initiated research’, International Journal of Early Years Education, 23(4): 394–408. Freeman, M.A. (1983) The Rights and Wrongs of Children. London: The Falmer Press. Hendrick, H. (2008) ‘The Child as a Social Actor in Historical Sources’, in: P. Christensen and A. James (eds.), Research with Children: Perspectives and Practices (2nd edn). London: Routledge, pp40–65.

References Jones, P. (2011) ‘Child rights and their practical application’, in P. Jones and G. Walker (eds), Children’s Rights in Practice. London: Sage. pp17–31. Kellett, M. (2010) Rethinking Children and Research: Attitudes in Contemporary Society. London: Continuum. Lundy, L. (2007) ‘Voice is not enough: conceptualizing Article 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’, British Educational Research Journal, 33(6): 927–942. Prout, A. (2011) ‘Taking a step away from modernity: reconsidering the new sociology of childhood’, Global Studies of Childhood, 1(1): 4–14. Punch, S. (2002) ‘Research with children: the same or different from research with adults?’, Childhood, 9(3): 321–341. Rogoff, B. (2003) The Cultural Nature of Human Development. New York: Oxford University Press. Smith, A.B. (2011) ‘Respecting children’s rights and agency’, in D. Harcourt, B. Perry and T. Waller (eds.), Researching Young Children’s Perspectives. London: Routledge. pp11–25. Tisdall, E.K.M. and Punch, S. (2012) ‘Not so new? Looking critically at childhood studies’, Children’s Geographies, 10(3): 249-264. UN (1989) United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Geneva: United Nations. UN (2005) Committee on the rights of the child: General Comment No. 7. Implementing child rights in early childhood (CRC/C/GC/7). Geneva: United Nations. UN (2009) Committee on the rights of the child: General Comment No 12: The Right of the Child to be Heard (CRC/C/GC/12). Geneva: United Nations. UN (2013) Committee on the rights of the child: General Comment No 14: On the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration (CRC/C/GC/14). Geneva: United Nations.