Criticism of Catholic Church: Contested papal elections Relations of popes to church councils Objections to church doctrines

John Wyclif (c. 1330-84) No need to obey sinful pope Importance of scripture over church teaching Rejecting transubstantiation 1414 Suppression of Wyclif’s followers (Lollards)

Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415) In Bohemia. Mostly following Wyclif, but… Lay folk should receive bread and wine at Mass Placed great importance on Eucharist (sacrament of Lord’s Supper)

Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415) July 6th 1415 Hus burned for heresy at Council of Constance c. 1436 End of Hussite rebellion in Bohemia

Criticism of Catholic Church: Behaviour of Church and clergy, incl. Selling of indulgences Pardoners (incl. plenary indulgences) Simony and Pluralism Other moral failings

Martin Luther (1483-1546) 1505 Swears to become monk 1507 Ordained priest

31st October 1517 Ninety-Five Theses or Disputations on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences Frederick III (the Wise) of Saxony (r. 1486-1525) 1520 Luther excommunicated

Luther’s Ideas: 1. Salvation through faith rather than good works (justification by faith) 2. Rejecting need for clergy or clerical celibacy Katharina von Bora (1499-1552) 3. Rejecting transubstantiation: body and blood present “in, with and under the elements”

Luther’s Ideas: 4. Rejecting sacraments of confirmation, marriage, ordination, last rites and (eventually) confession, only keeping baptism and communion 5. Bible as necessary source of doctrine. Produced German translation (1534)

Manifestations of the Reformation: Importance of location: Holy Roman Empire Popular changes to church ritual Anti-clericalism Whole states or cities becoming Protestant, such as…

…Nuremberg (March 1525), under influence of humanists incl. Albrecht Dürer Breaking with pope and Bishop of Bamberg Spreading elsewhere incl. Bohemia, Scandinavia (Lutheranism as official religion of Sweden, 1527)

Formation of Protestant Leagues in Holy Roman Empire August 1526 Ottomans defeat King of Hungary at Mohács 1529 Emperor Charles V decides to move against Protestants

1531 Group of states in Holy Roman Empire form Schmalkaldic League 1547 Charles V routs Schmalkaldic League, reconverts about 30 cities to Catholicism 1555 Peace of Augsburg: Cuius regio, eius religio (Whose realm, his religion)

1524-26 German Peasants’ War

Impact of Luther’s reforms: On the church On the rulers and nobility On the lower classes

Swiss Reformation Anabaptists Calvinists Reformation in England (Anglicans) Catholic Reformation/ Counter-Reformation

Swiss Reformation: Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) 1518 Zwingli becomes priest of Zurich Argues that Lord’s Supper is purely symbolic Opposes clerical celibacy, monasticism, pilgrimages indulgences, Purgatory, worship of saints

Swiss Reformation: Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) Collection of tithes ended in city, clerical celibacy denounced, choral singing and images removed from churches Zwingli’s ideas spread in Switzerland 1531 Catholic cantons attack Zurich. Zwingli killed, but peace made

Anabaptists Group led by Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) Faith as choice while adult Opposition to spreading religion using state power Jan 1525 Grebel conducts first adult baptism Anabaptists/Rebaptists

Anabaptists Anabaptism spreads in Switzerland, Holy Roman Empire, Netherlands, Italy, Poland 1534-35 Radical Anabaptists hold Münster Menno Simons (1496-1561) - Mennonites

John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64) 1532 Converts to Protestantism 1534 Flees France, arrives in Geneva in 1536 Predestination, not works Lord’s Supper – God spiritually present

John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64) Genevan reforms: Simple church services Moral reform of society “You can do anything you want in Geneva as long as you don’t enjoy it!”

John Calvin (Jean Cauvin, 1509-64) 1538 Calvin banished, recalled in 1541 1553 Burning of Michael Servetus Consistory Calvinism spreads in Netherlands, Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Poland, Scotland (Presbyterians; John Knox), England (Puritans), France (Huguenots)

Reformation in England (Anglicans) Henry VIII (Tudor, r. 1509-47) 1509 Marriage of Henry to Catherine of Aragon (d. 1536), widow of Arthur (d. 1502) 1521 Henry writes book opposing Luther – “Defender of the Faith” Anne Boleyn (d. 1536) 1527 Pope refuses divorce

Reformation in England (Anglicans) Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (d. 1530) 1533 Henry marries Anne Boleyn. Act of Restraint of Appeals. Thomas Cranmer (d. 1556) annuls Henry’s marriage to Catherine 1534 Act of Succession 1536 Act of Dissolution

Reformation in England (Anglicans) Anglican church accepts salvation by faith, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy; rejects Purgatory, Cult of Saints 1533 Anne gives birth to Elizabeth 1536 Anne executed for adultery Jane Seymour (d. 1537)

Reformation in England (Anglicans) Anne of Cleves – “Flemish Mare” Catherine Howard – executed 1542 Catherine Parr

Catholic Reformation/Counter-Reformation Council of Trent (1545-63) Pope Paul III Reaffirms: Charles V Church hierarchy Seven sacraments Transubstantiation Purgatory and indulgences Clerical celibacy

Catholic Reformation/Counter-Reformation Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) Society of Jesus (Jesuits), approved 1540 Rigorous training Advisors, missionaries

Link of Reformations to politics and identity Detrimental effect on levels of tolerance Church-state divisions?

On the Freedom of a Christian (1520)