©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 18: Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood Life-Span Development Twelfth Edition ©2009 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Multidimensionality Cognitive mechanics: the “hardware” of the mind Speed and accuracy of processes involved in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization Tends to decline with age Strongly influenced by biology and heredity

Multidimensionality Cognitive pragmatics: culture-based “software” programs of the mind Reading, writing, and educational qualifications Professional skills and language comprehension Knowledge of self and life skills May improve with age Strong cultural influences

Multidimensionality

Multidimensionality

Multidimensionality Speed of Processing: Attention: Speed of processing information declines in late adulthood Considerable individual variation Often due to a decline in brain and CNS functioning Attention: Selective attention: focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant Older adults are generally less adept at this

Multidimensionality Attention (continued): Divided attention: concentrating on more than one activity at the same time When tasks are easy, age differences are minimal The more difficult the tasks, the less effectively older adults divide attention Sustained attention: readiness to detect and respond to small changes occurring at random times in the environment Older adults perform just as well on simple tasks; but performance drops on complex tasks

Multidimensionality

Multidimensionality Memory: Memory changes during aging, but not all memory changes in the same way Episodic memory: younger adults have better episodic memory Semantic memory: does not decline as drastically as episodic memory Exception: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Working memory and perceptual speed: decline during the late adulthood years

Multidimensionality Memory (continued): Explicit memory: memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state Implicit memory: memory without conscious recollection; skills and routines that are automatically performed Implicit memory shows less aging declines than explicit memory Source memory: the ability to remember where one learned something Decreases with age during late adulthood

Multidimensionality Memory (continued): Prospective memory: remembering to do something in the future Age decline depends on the nature of the task and what is being assessed Older adults’ beliefs and expectancies about memory play a role in their actual memory Memory ability is influenced by health, education, and socioeconomic status Research has relied primarily on laboratory tests of memory, not real-world tasks

Multidimensionality Wisdom: Wisdom: expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters High levels of wisdom are rare Late adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for wisdom to emerge Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high level Personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than cognitive factors

Education, Work, and Health Successive generations in America’s 20th century were better educated Older adults might seek more education for a number of reasons Work: Successive generations have placed a stronger emphasis on cognitively oriented labor Substantive complex work is linked with higher intellectual functioning in older adults

Education, work, and health Successive generations have been healthier in late adulthood Better treatments for a variety of illnesses Lifestyle and exercise are linked to improved cognitive functioning Mental health can influence cognitive functioning Terminal decline: changes in cognitive functioning may be linked more to distance from death than distance from birth

Use It or lose it Changes in cognitive activity patterns can result in disuse and lead to atrophy of skills Certain mental activities can benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills Reading books, doing crossword puzzles, going to lectures and concerts Research suggests that mental exercise may reduce cognitive decline and lower the likelihood of developing Alzheimer disease

Training Cognitive Skills Training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults There is some loss in plasticity in late adulthood, especially in the oldest-old Improving the physical fitness of older adults can improve their cognitive functioning

Cognitive neuroscience and aging Cognitive neuroscience: discipline that studies links between the brain and cognitive functioning Changes in the brain can influence cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brain Cognitive neuroscience is beginning to uncover important links between aging, the brain, and cognitive functioning

Language Development Some decrements in language may appear in late adulthood Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Difficulty understanding speech due to hearing problems Speech of older adults is typically lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent Non-language factors may be responsible for some of the decline in language skills Slower information processing speed Decline in working memory

Work From 1900 to 2000, the number of men over age 65 who work full-time decreased by about 70%, probably due to the availability of part-time work Good health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a distaste for retirement are important factors related to continued employment into old age

Work Cognitive ability is the best predictor of job performance in older adults Older workers have lower rates of absenteeism, fewer accidents, and increased job satisfaction Many middle-aged and older adults are embarking on a 2nd or 3rd career Many older adults participate in unpaid work as volunteers

Work

Retirement On average, workers spend 10%–15% of their lives in retirement Life paths for individuals in their 60’s: Some continue work Some retire from their career work and start a new and different job Some retire from career jobs but do volunteer work Some move in and out of the work force Some individuals move to a disability status and eventually into retirement Some who are laid off define it as “retirement”

Adjustment to Retirement Retirement is a process, not an event Older adults who adjust best to retirement: Have an adequate income Are better educated Are healthy and active Have extended social networks and family Were satisfied with their lives before retiring

Mental Health: Depression Major depression: mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored Depression does not become more frequent in late adulthood Fewer economic hardships Fewer negative social exchanges Increased religiosity

Mental Health: Depression Depressive symptoms increase in the oldest-old Higher percentage of women More physical disability More cognitive impairment Lower socioeconomic status Women show more depression at 50 and 60 years of age, but depression in men increases from 60 to 80

Mental Health: Depression Common predictors: Earlier depressive symptoms Poor health or disability Loss events Low social support 25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of age or older Older adult most likely to commit suicide is a male who lives alone, has lost his spouse, and is experiencing failing health

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Dementia: any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia Alzheimer Disease: a common form of dementia that is characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function Rates could triple within the next 50 years as people live longer Divided into early-onset (younger than 65) or late-onset (later than 65)

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Alzheimer Disease (continued): Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine Brain shrinks and deteriorates as memory ability decreases Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles Age is an important risk factor, and genes also play an important role Healthy lifestyle factors may lower the risk

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Mild Cognitive Impairment represents a transitional state between the cognitive changes of normal aging and very early disease Deficits in episodic memory appear to be an especially important early indication of risk Several medications have been approved to treat Alzheimer disease

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Caring for people with Alzheimer is a major concern Support is often emotionally and physically draining for the family 50% of family caregivers report depression Female caregivers report more caregiving hours, higher levels of burden and depression, and lower levels of well-being and physical health than male caregivers Respite care services have been developed to help people who take care of family members with Alzheimer disease

Dementia and Alzheimer Disease Multi-Infarct Dementia: a sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction of blood flow in cerebral arteries More common among men with a history of high blood pressure Recovery is possible Parkinson Disease: a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and facial paralysis Triggered by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain Several treatments are available

Victimization, Crime, and Mistreatment Older adults commonly report fear of being the victim of a crime, but they are actually less likely than younger adults to be victimized Crimes committed against older adults are likely to be serious offenses Older adult crime victimization rates may be higher than reported by victims due to: Fear of retribution from criminals Belief the criminal justice system can’t help

Victimization, Crime, and Mistreatment Elder maltreatment is primarily committed by family members Elder maltreatment: Can include neglect and physical abuse Is most often suffered by women Institutional abuse: mistreatment of older adults living in care facilities

Victimization, Crime, and Mistreatment Older adults receive disproportionately fewer mental health services Persons age 65 or older make up 11% of the population but receive only 2.7% of all clinical services provided by psychologists Psychologists prefer to work with young, attractive, verbal, intelligent and successful clients (YAVISes) rather than quiet, ugly, old, institutionalized, and different clients (QUOIDs) Mental health care needs to be more available and affordable for older adults

Religion Older adults are spiritual leaders in many societies around the world Religion is: More significant in older adults’ lives Related to a sense of meaning in life Related to higher levels of life satisfaction, optimism, and self-esteem Associated with better health Perhaps associated with living longer