Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research Chapter 2

Chapter 2 Outline Theories About Sexuality Psychological theories Psychoanalytic theory Behavioral theory Social learning theory Cognitive theory Humanistic theory Evolutionary theory Biological theory Sociological theories Feminist theory Queer theory Broad overview of contents

Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) Sexuality Research: Philosophers, Physicians, and Sexologists Early sex research Recent studies on sexuality Politics and sex research Sexuality Research Early promoters of sexology Sexuality research moves to the U.S. Research studies on homosexuality Other sexuality studies Age-specific studies: teens and seniors

Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) Sex Research Methods and Considerations Case studies Questionnaires versus interviews Direct observation Participant observation Experimental methods Correlations

Chapter 2 Outline (Cont.) Problems and Issues in Sex Research Ethical issues Volunteer bias Samplings problems Reliability Sexuality Research Across Cultures Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research

Theory and Research Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality Research helps answer questions about human sexuality Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken

Theories About Sexuality Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of psychoanalysis, set the stage for all other psychological theories.

Psychoanalytic Theory Freud (1856-1939) Most influential psychological theory of sexuality Sex drive is a very important life force Two controversial concepts: Personality formation Psychosexual development

Personality Formation Two drives (motivations): Libido – life or sexual motivation Thanatos – death or aggressiveness motivation Two divisions to personality: Three levels of operation conscious, preconscious, unconscious Three guiding identities id, ego, superego

Levels of Operation Conscious – information in awareness Preconscious – information within recall, but not in awareness Unconscious – inaccessible, the most important level of operation

Guiding Identities Id – seeks immediate satisfaction Ego – operates in reality; balances id and superego Superego – values & restrictions; conscience Psychoanalysis required if ego does not balance id and superego Psychoanalysis brings unconscious thoughts into consciousness

Psychosexual Development Basic personality formed within the first six years of life Stages of development Corresponding erogenous zones where libidinal energy is directed Unsuccessful progression through each stage could result in fixation Fixation occurs when libidinal energy is caught in that stage’s zone

Psychosexual Stages of Development Stage (time period): Zone Oral (0-18 months): Mouth Anal (18 months-3 years): Anus Phallic (3-6 years): Genitals (Penis/Clitoris) Boys: Oedipus complex, castration anxiety Girls: Electra complex, penis envy Latency (6 years-puberty): None Genital (puberty-death): Genitals No fixations resulted in a heterosexual adult

Behavioral Theory Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states Operant conditioning (Skinner) reinforcement punishment Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior Aversion therapy

Social Learning Theory Bandura Basis in operant conditioning Also consider internal events in affecting behavior Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity Peer pressure influence on our sexuality

Cognitive Theory Individual differences in processing information Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment Largest sex organ – the brain We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing

Humanistic Theory Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized

Biological Theory Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics Sexual problems due to physiological causes; interventions include medications or surgery

Evolutionary Theory Combination of evolution and sociology Sexuality serves mainly to reproduce Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes Consider mater preferences from an evolutionary perspective

Sociological Theory Sexual expression varies across societies Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality Family Religion Economy Medicine Law Media

Feminist Theory Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes Sexuality research is based on male sexuality Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men Women as passive and submissive Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction

Queer Theory Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain

Early Sexuality Research Variety of disciplines Focus on abnormal and unhealthy practices Victorian period (19th century) suspended sexuality research until physicians made it an appropriate topic as related to medicine Primarily studied in Europe

Early Sexuality Research (Cont.) Early 20th century it earned legitimacy with Freud, Ellis, and Bloch Moved to the United States in 1920s, encouraged by the social hygiene movement Limited funding for research

Recent Sexuality Research Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research Prompted by HIV/AIDS Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality Pressure from conservative groups Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research

Recent Sexuality Research (Cont.) Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding

Politics and Sex Research Sexuality research changes with the political climate Changing roles of women, development of birth control pills, and Kinsey’s work led to less acceptance for the double standard HIV/AIDS crisis provided a new opportunity for sex research Political resistance even today

Early Promoters of Sexology Bloch (1872-1922): Published the Journal of Sexology beginning 1914 Moll (1862-1939): In 1913, began the International Society for Sex Research; authored sexology books Hirschfeld (1868-1935): Worked to better the treatment of homosexuals and bisexuals; developed an Institute for Sexology

Early Promoters of Sexology (Cont.) Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902): Sexual pathology Ellis (1859-1939): Published six-volume work on sexuality; refuted deviance of homosexuality and masturbation All early researchers legitimized the study of sexuality Findings lacked consistency and organization

Sexuality Research Moves to the United States Mosher (1863-1940): First to ask Americans about their sexual behavior; helped married women have better sex lives Bement Davis (1861-1935): Prostitution and STIs; homosexuality is not abnormal

Katharine Bement Davis (1861 – 1935) conducted some of the largest and most comprehensive sexuality studies to date.

Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.) Kinsey (1894-1956): Most influential modern sexuality researcher Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories Preferred use of 100% sampling 1947, established the Institute for Sex Research

Sexuality Research Moves to the United States (Cont.) Kinsey 1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male 1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced Controversial work; had funding sources taken away

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) implemented the first large-scale survey of adult sexual behavior in the United States.

Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.) Hunt: Playboy Foundation study of American sexual behaviors (1974); volunteer bias prevents generalizability Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory Electrocardiograph Electromyograph Penile strain gauges Photoplethysmographs

Virginia Johnson and William Masters were the first to bring sexuality into the laboratory.

To measure physiological changes during sexual arousal, researches rely on strain gauges and photoplethysmographs. A penile strain gauge is placed on the base of the penis to measure erectile changes in the penis, while a photoplethysmograph is inserted in the vaginal canal to measure changes I vaginal lubrication.

Sexuality Research in the United States (Cont.) Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966) Four stage model Women may have multiple orgasms Sexuality stays with us as we age Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation

Research Studies Homosexuality Few large-scale studies Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978) majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes aren’t sexual predators homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships

Dr. Evelyn Hooker published the first empirical study to challenge the psychiatric view that homosexuality was a mental illness. Her work ultimately led to the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

Research Studies Homosexuality The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994); surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes

Age-Specific Studies: Teens and Seniors National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2002) National Survey of Adolescent Males (2002) Seniors Starr & Weiner (1981): Sexuality still important for seniors Love, Sex, and Aging (1984)

Sex Research Methods and Considerations Case study – thorough examination of one or few participants Validity – accuracy of measurement Reliability – consistency of measurement Generalizability – ability of sample to be applicable to the population

Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) Case studies – individual cases explored to form hypotheses; Freud Questionnaires versus interviews – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge; Kinsey Anonymity Direct observation – focus on behaviors; Masters and Johnson difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive

Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) Participant observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment; research conducted in a bar; much sexual behavior is in private Experimental method – establish cause and effect due to increased control Random assignment Independent variable – manipulated Dependent variable – measured Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints

Sex Research Methods and Considerations (Cont.) Correlations – describes a relationship between variables Used when experiments are not possible Cannot establish cause and effect

Problems and Issues in Sex Research Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; poor generalizability Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned Reliability – changes over time; memory

Sexuality Research Across Cultures Human Sexual Behaviors (1971) – one of the largest cultural studies Many commonalities, differences Analyse des Comportements Sexuels en France (1992) and NHSLS (2001) compared sexual behavior in France and the U.S. Pfizer Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (2002) – 1st global examination of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, satisfaction

Figure 2.2 Do you engage in sex at least weekly?

Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research Need for financial support Congressional and religious opposition Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding Many sex researchers work in a “Scientific underground” Many unexplored topics within human sexuality Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects