The Story of Psychology Prologue

Psychological Science Is Born First laboratory Fourth century B.C.E.: Aristotle used observation and questioning to understand the body-psyche relationship Questions were answered through observation (and guesses)

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Defined psychology as “science of mental life” Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments

Structuralism Edward Titchener (1867 -1927) Mentored by Wundt Relied on “self-report” Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure

Functionalism William James (1842 – 1910) Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: What function might thoughts, feelings, and behaviors serve? How might they have helped our ancestors survive (evolution)? Wrote the first psychological text Principles of Psychology

Women in Psychology Mary Calkins (1863 – 1930) Studied with James but discriminated against and denied PhD Focused on memory research Became the first APA female president

Women in Psychology Margaret Washburn (1871 – 1939) Became second APA female president Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

Women in Psychology Dorothea Dix

Behaviorism Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behavior” without reference to mental processes Did not find introspection to be scientific Watson and Rayner conducted the famous Little Albert Experiment

Behaviorism John Watson & B.F. Skinner Watson focused on Classical Conditioning Stimulus – stimulus learning Skinner is known for his work on Operant Conditioning Response – Consequence learning Watson (1878 -1958) Skinner (1904 -1990)

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Dissatisfied with hypnosis Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior

Humanistic Psychology Abraham Maslow (1908 -1970) Revived interest in study of mental processes Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied Created a hierarch of needs

Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987) Believed in unconditional positive regard Focused on client centered therapy

Cognitive Psychology The cognitive revolution occurred in 1960 and focus returned to interest in mental processes. Cognitive psychology scientifically explored ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered.

Cognitive Neuroscience The interdisciplinary field that ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity

Modern Definition of Psychology Psychology = science of behavior and mental processes Mental processes = internal, subjective experience inferred from behavior Behavior = any action that can be observed or recorded

Contemporary Psychology Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology. This contributed to the growing understanding of biology and experience and fueled the nature-nurture debate.

Contemporary Psychology Nature – Nurture Controversy To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth Nurture to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment/ experience

Nature – Nurture Debates in History Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn Descartes: Some ideas are intuitive Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species; natural selection Nurture Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses Locke: Mind is blank slate

Contemporary Psychology Evolutionary psychology: Focus on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history Heavily influenced by Charles Darwin Survival of the fittest

Contemporary Psychology Mating Preferences in Evolutionary Psychology

Contemporary Psychology Behavior genetics: Focus on differences related to differing genes and environments Cross-cultural psychology: Focus on ways culture shapes behavior, but same underlying processes are universal Gender psychology: Focus on differences; males and females are overwhelmingly similar

Contemporary Psychology Positive Psychology Martin Segilman Explores human flourishing Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self Promotes positive thinking

Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis We call this the Biopsychosocialmodel It is made up of biological influences, psychological influences, and socio- cultural influences Influences our behavior and/or mental influences

Biopsychosocial Model Biological Influences genetic predispositions (genetically influenced traits) genetic mutations natural selection of adaptive traits and behaviors passed down through generations genes responding to the environment

Biopsychosocial Model Psychological Influences learned fears and other learned expectations emotional responses cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations

Biopsychosocial Model Sociocultural Influences Social-cultural influences: presence of others cultural, societal, and family expectations peer and other group influences compelling models (such as in the media)

Psychology’s Subfields The aim of the subfields is describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it Range of researchers in the subfields include: Biological psychologists Developmental psychologists Cognitive psychologists Personality psychologists Social psychologists

Perspective Focus Sample questions Examples of subfields using this perspective Neuroscience How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences How do pain messages travel from the hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? Biological; cognitive; clinical Evolutionary How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes How does evolution influence behavior tendencies? Biological; developmental; social Behavior genetics How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression products of our genes? Of our environment? Personality; developmental; legal/forensic Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas? Clinical; counseling; personality Behavioral How we learn observable responses How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say, to lose weight or stop smoking? Clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational Cognitive How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems? Cognitive neuroscience; clinical; counseling; industrial-organizational Socio-cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures How are we alike as members of one human family? How do we differ as products of our environment? Developmental; social psychology; clinical; counseling

Psychology’s Subfields: Research Psychologist What they do Biological Explore the links between brain and mind. Developmental Study changing abilities from womb to tomb. Cognitive Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems. Personality Investigate our persistent traits. Social Explore how we view and affect one another.

Psychology’s Subfields Research

Psychology’s Subfields Applied Psychologist What they do Clinical Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders Counseling Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges. Educational Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings Industrial/Organizational Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace. Human Factor Design machines that assist our natural perceptions

Psychology’s Subfield’s Applied

Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy. Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.