The History and Scope of Psychology Module 1 The History and Scope of Psychology

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble 1-1: HOW DO THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE’S THREE MAIN COMPONENTS RELATE TO CRITICAL THINKING? Curiosity Skepticism Humility Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Curiosity Includes a passion to explore and understand the world without misleading or being misled Let the facts speak for themselves by using an empirical approach Questions to consider What do you mean? How do you know?

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Curious Skepticism Supports questions about behavior and mental processes: What do you mean? How do you know? THE AMAZING RANDI: Magician and skeptic James Randi has tested and debunked a variety of psychic phenomena.

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Humility Involves awareness of our own vulnerability to error and willingness to be surprised Openness to new perspectives One of psychology’s early mottos: “The rat is always right.”

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Critical Thinking Critical thinking refers to careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge by Examining assumptions Appraising source(s) of information Discerning hidden biases Evaluating evidence, and Assessing conclusions Critical thinking in psychology has led to surprising findings, debunked popular presumptions, and resulted in more effective policies.

Critical Thinking Determining if flaw in information collection exists Considering alternative explanations for facts or results Discarding personal assumptions and biases and view the evidence CRITICAL THINKING: Analyzing, rather than simply accepting, information Searching for hidden assumptions and deciding if you agree Looking for hidden bias, politics, values, or personal connections

Psychology’s Roots 1-2: WHAT WERE SOME IMPORTANT MILESTONES IN PSYCHOLOGY’S EARLY DEVELOPMENT? Fourth century B.C.E.: Aristotle theorized about Learning and memory Motivation and emotion Perception and personality He didn’t have our knowledge, but he asked the right questions.

Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Laboratory Wilhelm Wundt Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany Seeked to measure “atoms of the mind” Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments

Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Schools of Thought Edward Bradford Titchener Relied on “self-report” data Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure. This early school of thought was called structuralism.

Functionalism: William James Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: What function might they serve? How might they have helped our ancestors survive? This functionalist school of thought was influenced by Charles Darwin

Psychology’s First Women Mary Whiton Calkins Became memory researcher and first APA female president Studied with James but was discriminated against and denied PhD

Psychology’s First Women Margaret Floy Washburn Became second APA female president Wrote The Animal Mind Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

Psychological Science Develops: Behaviorism 1-3: HOW DID PSYCHOLOGY CONTINUE TO DEVELOP FROM THE 1920s THROUGH TODAY? Behaviorism Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behavior” without reference to mental processes Became major force in psychology into 1960s John B. Watson (classical conditioning) and B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning) dismissed introspection Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduced famous “Little Albert” experiments

Psychological Science Develops: Freudian Psychology Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior Freudian psychology was second major force until 1960s

Psychological Science Develops: Humanistic Psychology Humanistic psychology is a historically significant perspective that revived interest in study of mental processes Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and on importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Psychological Science Develops: Modern Definition of Psychology Mental processes = internal, subjective experience inferred from behavior Behavior = any action that can be observed or recorded Psychology = science of behavior and mental processes

Contemporary Psychology 1-4: HOW HAS OUR UNDERSTANDING OF BIOLOGY AND EXPERIENCE, CULTURE AND GENDER, AND HUMAN FLOURISHING SHAPED CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology. Like the pioneers, today’s psychologists are citizens of many lands; psychology has spread rapidly with 82 member nations in the International Union of Psychological Science. Psychology is growing and globalizing.

Contemporary Psychology: The Cognitive Revolution The cognitive revolution began in the 1960s and focus returned to interest in mental processes. Cognitive psychology continues to scientifically explore ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered, and to study the cognitive roots of psychological disorders . The interdisciplinary field of cognitive neuroscience ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity.

Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics The big nature–nurture question is longstanding and continues in psychology . To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our nature)? And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment and experience (our nurture)? Natural selection: Chance inherited traits aiding survival and reproduction are ones most likely to be passed down. Why do you think these questions are important?

Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species Study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using the principles of natural selection Behavior Genetics Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses Humans differ because of our differing genes and environments Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Contemporary Psychology: Cross-Cultural and Gender Psychology Cross-cultural psychology: Focuses on ways culture shapes behavior, but our shared biological heritage also unites us with underlying universal processes. Gender psychology: Focuses on differences, knowledge of which is beneficial, but again males and females are overwhelmingly similar psychologically as well as biologically.

Contemporary Psychology: Positive Psychology Martin Seligman a key figure: Psychology’s first hundred years focused on understanding and treating troubles Positive psychology instead explores human flourishing Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis 1-5: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND RELATED PERSPECTIVES?

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis Each level of analysis is incomplete by itself Psychology has varied perspectives, each asking different questions Perspectives complement one another

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Current Perspectives Table 1.1

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields 1-6: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S MAIN SUBFIELDS? Psychologists united by common quest: describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it. Basic research builds psychology’s knowledge base. Applied research tackles practical problems. Range of researchers Biological psychologists Developmental psychologists Cognitive psychologists Personality psychologists Social psychologists Industrial-organizational psychologists

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields Counseling psychologists help people to cope with challenges and crises. Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with mental, emotional, behavior disorders. Psychiatrists, as medical doctors, may prescribe drugs and provide psychotherapy. Community psychologists work to create social and physical environments healthy for all. Perspectives range from biological to social, and settings range from laboratory to clinic to office. Psychologists influence culture and appreciate cultural influences on behavior.