Honors Physiology Friday 12/12/14 Final Exam Review Organic Molecules Cell Membrane and Tonicity Protein Synthesis

Molecules of Life

“Hydrates of Carbon” with the formula Cn(H20)n. Carbohydrates Function for quick and short term energy storage. “Hydrates of Carbon” with the formula Cn(H20)n.

Monosaccharides: Simple sugars that are formed into one Carbon ring. Polysaccharides: Complex sugars formed by chains of Carbon rings.

Cellulose is a complex polysaccharide that we can not digest Cellulose is a complex polysaccharide that we can not digest. It is also called fiber or roughage.

Lipids Contain more energy than any other biological molecules. Fats-solid at room temperature. Oils-liquid at room temp.

Lipids are non-polar molecules, and therefore do not dissolve in water. They are the key to all membrane structure.

Saturated fats have as many Hydrogens as possible and allow for a dense solid structure. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between Carbons and do not form as dense a fat.

Proteins Made from a long chain of amino acids that are connected by peptide bonds. The order of the amino acids in the chain determine the shape of the protein. The different shapes of the proteins allow for different functions.

Functions of proteins: Support Enzymes Transport Defense Hormones Motion

When proteins are subject to extreme heat or pH, they denature, or lose their shape.

Nucleic Acids Genetic material found in the nucleus of all cells. (DNA and RNA) Functions to direct the sequence of amino acids in protein formation.

Double-helix shape stores the code in sequence of A,C,T, and G in the “rungs” of the ladder.

Each section of the ladder is called a nucleotide. Sugar, phosphate, and base

DNA is passed down from parent to offspring as heredity.

In your Notes! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7CJ7xZOjm0 Explain how the cell membrane is like a screen door.—you may want to expand the analogy to make it more complete.

What are diffusion and osmosis? 1. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a lower concentration 2. Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules

How does tonicity change a cell? Hypertonic solutions have more solute than the inside of the cell and lead to crenation (crenation) Hypotonic solutions have less solute than the inside of the cell and lead to lysis (bursting) Isotonic solutions have equal amounts of solute inside and outside the cell and thus does not affect the cell

An Introduction to Protein Synthesis Mr. Smuts

By the end of class today, I will be able to describe how the cell uses DNA and RNA through transcription and translation to assemble proteins.

The year was 1989… Me This teacher asked me to write a research paper on DNA.

Getting the information

Writing the report at home on my new computer

How can I get the information home to write my report?

Writing the report at home on my new computer

Steps to the process: I needed to write a report. The necessary information for the report is in the library. The librarian won’t let the encyclopedia out of the library! A xerox machine makes a copy of the information. The copy of the information goes home to the computer. The information is used to write the report on the computer at home.

Proteins Amino Acids Protein Synthesis Protein Synthesis is the process by which cells use the code stored in their nucleus as the directions to build proteins at the ribosome by connecting amino acids in certain sequences. Proteins Amino Acids

Steps to the process: The cell needs to make a protein The necessary information(DNA) for the protein is in the nucleus. The nuclear membrane won’t let the information(DNA) out of the nucleus! RNA Polymerase makes a copy(mRNA) of the DNA. The copy(mRNA) of the DNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the (ribosome). The mRNA is used to make the protein at the ribosome in the cytoplasm.

2 steps of protein synthesis (gene expression) Transcription – DNA is read to make a mRNA in the nucleus of our cells Translation – Reading the mRNA to make a protein in the cytoplasm

Check out the Animation! http://www.dnai.org/a/index.html

In your notes… Describe the process of Transcription. Be sure to include the following: Where it takes place What molecules are involved Why the process happens

Overview of transcription and translation Bio

Check out the Animation! http://www.dnai.org/a/index.html

In your notes… Describe the process of Translation. Be sure to include the following: Where it takes place What molecules are involved Why the process happens

The genetic code Made of 4 bases Bases act as a code for amino acids in translation Every 3 bases on the mRNA is called a codon that codes for a particular amino acid in translation

Be the Ribosome! http://www.wvschools.net/wvsd/High%20School/HIGH%20SCHOOL%20NEWS/Mrs.%20Aungst%20Keystone%20Information/Transcription%20and%20Translation.pdf Use the provided mRNA codon/Amino Acid Charts to complete the first 2 parts to your worksheet.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration The process that cells use to break down glucose to release energy in the presence of Oxygen (O2)

Energy in the cell is available in the form of certain compounds, such as ATP - (Adenosine Triphosphate)

(Lactic acid fermentation or Overview: Cellular Respiration Aerobic Respiration i) Krebs Cycle ii) Electron transport chain Fermentation Anaerobic pathway (Lactic acid fermentation or Alcohol fermentation) Glycolysis O2 present O2 absent

2 stages of Cellular Respiration Glycolysis Glucose (a six carbon sugar) is broken down into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules Requires 2 ATP molecules Creates 4 ATP molecules and 2 NADPH molecules for the electron transport chain

2. Aerobic Respiration i) Kreb’s Cycle pyruvic acid from glycolysis is used to make CO2, NADH, ATP, and FADH2 Occurs in the mitochondria The end energy tally from 1 Glucose (2 pyruvic acids) is: 6 NADH 2 FADH2 2 ATP

ii) Electron Transport The high energy electrons from the Kreb’s Cycle are passed along a series of proteins in the mitochondrial membrane.

As electrons pass along the electron transport chain, protons are pumped into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. This creates a concentration and charge gradient. As protons move back down the concentration gradient, ATP is produced

Cellular Respiration of 1 Glucose molecule Glycolysis = 6 ATP Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain = 30 ATP Grand Total of 36 ATP molecules from 1 Glucose!

If O2 is NOT present: Fermentation occurs (anaerobic respiration meaning that oxygen is not required) Two types of fermentation: Alcoholic Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation

Alcoholic Fermentation Used by yeast and a few other microorganisms. Produces Ethyl Alcohol and CO2 as wastes. Pyruvic Acid + NADH Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

Lactic Acid Fermentation Produced in many cells including your muscles. Pyruvic Acid + NADH Lactic Acid + NAD+ Lactic Acid is produced during rapid exercise, causing a painful, burning sensation. This effect is reduced with potassium.

Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

The Osteon Compact bone is made of multiple osteons Osteons are made of concentric rings of matrix called lamellae.

Osteocytes Osteocytes(bone cells) live in spaces within the lamellae. These spaces are called lacunae.

Blood Flow to the Osteocytes Blood enters to the bone by arterioles through the nutrient foramina. Blood also enters the bone through periosteal blood vessels. Blood then travels through the Haversian canals. These run through the center of the osteon. Haversian canals are connected laterally through Volkman’s canals. The smallest canals connecting all osteocytes are called canaliculi.

Blood Flow to the Osteocytes

Review What is the functional unit of compact bone called?

Review What is the functional unit of compact bone called? The Osteon

Review 2. “Bone cells” live within the “spaces” found between the “rings” of the osteon What are these three structures called?

Review 2. “Bone cells” live within the “spaces” found between the “rings” of the osteon What are these three structures called? Bone Cells=Osteocytes Spaces =lacunae Rings= lamellae

Review Place the following blood vessels or canals in order from largest to smallest Volkman’s canals Canaliculi Haversian Canals

Review Place the following blood vessels or canals in order from largest to smallest Haversian Canals Volkman’s Canals Canaliculi