Schools of Behavioral Studies and Business Administration Gender and Age Cohort Effects on Preferences for Leadership Behaviors: A Study of Romanian Managers Aharon Tziner Schools of Behavioral Studies and Business Administration NAC

introduction Organizational leadership has attracted a great deal of interest in the social science literature within the last century (e.g., Kaiser, Hogan & Craig, 2008), the majority of these studies are based on conceptual models or data derived from Western cultures. In recent decades, researchers have increasingly called for a re-examination of current social science theories with the goal of detecting to what extent theories drawing upon Western cultural values and precepts are tenable with non-Western individuals (Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede & Peterson, 2000; House, Hanges, Javidan & Dorfman, 2004; Javidan & House, 2001).

The objective of the current study To examined relationships between age cohort effects and gender on preferences for leadership behaviors: transformational and transactional leadership styles in Romania (a country transiting cultural and contextual changes following the downfall of the Communist regime).

International Management Development Management development is a broad term that describes a range of activities involved in improving managerial performance. When organizations embrace a strategy of adapting to business in other cultures, creating developmental activities that increase the cross- cultural communication and relational abilities of managers can become a key objective (Hawrylyshyn, 1985). We consider leadership training to be a central type of management development for cross-cultural operations

If managers can be sensitive to differences in personal values, norms, and behavioral preferences they are then able to adjust their own communication and other interpersonal behavior to best match the preferences of people from other cultures (de Bettignies, 1985). Managers who are effective in this process can be critical for long-term organizational effectiveness (DeCieri, Kramar, Noe, Hollenbeck, Gehart, & Wright, 2009).

The essential aspects of leadership tend to focus on influencing employees to willingly contribute to the attainment of organizational goals (Hackman & Johnson, 2004; Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992). Two major types of leader behaviors – transactional and transformational – are both necessary for effective leaders and may be present in various combinations depending on situational demands (Avolio & Bass, 2002).

Transactional and Transformational Behaviors Transactional leadership behaviors involve structuring the performance environment to assist employees in achieving organizational objectives and receiving rewards Transformational behaviors focus primarily on creating changes in followers’ values, self-perceptions, and psychological needs. Both types of behaviors are associated with effective leadership (Antonakis & House, 2002; Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002; Judge & Piccolo, 2004)

H1- females will prefer transformational leadership behaviors. There is evidence that individuals’ receptivity to transformational and transactional leadership may be moderated by cultural context. Preferences for types of leadership behaviors have been related to gender in previous studies (Beam, Serwatka, & Wilson; Vecchio & Boatwright, 2002). females exhibit a stronger preference for transformational types of leadership behavior (Vecchio & Boatwright, 2002). H1- females will prefer transformational leadership behaviors.

We feel that age cohort differences will reflect changes in values because there is evidence of an age cohort effect in Romania, where individuals who reached maturity after the end of the communist era are closer to Western individuals in respect to work-related values. In contrast, based on the common life experience of living under communism, it appears that older individuals have work-related values that are more authoritarian. H2- Age cohort differences will reflect differential preferences of leadership behaviors.

Research Model National Culture Preferred leadership style : Transactional or Transformational Individual characteristics: 1. Age cohort 2. Gender

Romanian Culture Romanian cultural history stresses an autocratic leadership style. In Romania there is a strong value of traditionalism, and managers lean towards a more task-oriented leadership style (Aioanei, 2006). Accordingly, Aioanei (2006) documents a trend in which younger Romanians are more likely to lean towards democratic preferences in leadership behaviors.

Method Participants: 324 managers in a variety of organizations in Romania. 61% male and 39% female Over 94% had more than 12 years of education. 46% of the respondents were age 34 and under, while 54% were 35 and above.

Procedure: The instrument was administered to approximately 400 managers. 324 usable questionnaires were completed and returned. Participants were asked to complete all the items and return the instrument in a sealed envelope to a member of the research team.

Instruments Ohio State Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ XII). Romanian version. Participants were asked to indicate the behaviors they desired from the ideal manager. Responses were marked on a 5-point scale ranging from 5 (always) to 1 (never). For the purposes of this study, only responses on the two factors of transformational and transactional leadership behavior were calculated.

The transformational leadership scale was comprised of 15 items designed to measure the preference for behaviors such as intellectual stimulation, group vision, and challenge. The internal consistency of this scale was alpha = 0.83 (M = 3.52, SD = 0.65). The transactional leadership scale consisted of 18 items relating to group and team maintenance, the direction of group activities, and judgment and group problem solving. This factor yielded an internal consistency of alpha = 0.84 (M = 3.79, SD = 0.62).

Results Table 1-Descriptive Statistics, Inter-correlations, and Reliabilities for Leadership Preference Variables. Variables Mean SD N 1 2 1. Transformational 3.52 0.65 324 (.83)   2. Transactional 3.79 0.62 .69* (.84) Note: * p < .01.

Table 2 reveals a main effect for gender on transformational leadership (F = 5.49, p = .02) where females displayed a preference for higher levels of transformational leadership behaviors relative to men. However, gender had no effect on preferences for transactional leadership (F = 1.18, p = .28). This effect for gender followed expectations based on previous research (Vecchio & Boatwright, 2002)

Age-based cohort differences had a strong effect on preferences for transformational leadership (F = 7.07, p = .008) and a no effect on preferences for transactional leadership (F = 3.66, p = .057). Specifically, we found that managers 35 years of age and older showed a higher preference for transformational leadership than those of 34 years and lower.

Transformational Preferences Transactional Preferences Results Table 2-Differences in Leadership Behavioral Preferences by Gender Transformational Preferences Gender Effect   N M SD F p Men 199 3.45 .64 5.49 .02 Women 125 3.62 .65 Transactional Preferences 3.56 .61 1.18 .28 3.64 .56 Note: N = 324.

Age by gender interaction analysis Table 3 reveals that male managers of the age 34 and under are higher on preferences for transactional than transformational leadership (M = 3.5, SD = .61 vs. M = 3.3, SD = .69; beta = -.19, p=.002). No similar results were detected for female managers of the same ages, male managers of the age of 35 and above, or female managers of the age of 35 and above. (managers 34 years old or younger, are too young to remember conditions under the old communist regime).  

However, across all respondents the difference between the two cohorts of age is slightly higher on transformational (age 34 and under, M = 3.61 vs. age 35 and over, M = 3.41) than on transactional (age 34 and under, M = 3.65 vs. age 35 and over, M = 3.53) implying that those who remember the former regime differ to a greater extent from their younger counterparts on transformational than on transactional preferences.

Results Table 3-Differences in Leadership Behavioral Preferences by Age and Gender   Transformational Preferences   Age Range N M SD Age Gender Male up to 34 89 3.30 0.67 F p F p Male 35 and above 110 3.58 0.57 7.07; .008 5.49; .020 Female up to 34 60 3.59 0.65 Female 35 and above 65 3.66 0.66 Transactional Preferences 3.50 .61 3.61 .60 3.66; .057 1.18; .280 3.56 .59 3.70 .52

Discussion females displayed a preference for transformational leadership behaviors as we expected. Transformational leadership behaviors share conceptual connections with core feminine values such as relational interdependence and interpersonal development. There is significant effect for age cohort differences in preferences for both transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. The similarity in preferences across ages may be due to the fact that there is a common core of engagement oriented behaviors that underlies both transformational and transactional leadership (Antonakis & House, 2002; Bass & Steidlmeier, 1991; Kark & Van Dijk, 2007).

in understanding preferences for leadership behaviors based on gender and age cohort, the age cohort differences have a more consistent effect across types of leadership behavioral preference. This result may in part be explained because age-based cohort effects are derived largely from developmental experiences that are based in specific cultures and times. Conceptually, this suggests that the variance in cultural leadership preferences are explained most readily by history effects within a culture, although gender-based effects may interact with effects of culture.

the interaction of age by gender was found insignificant the interaction of age by gender was found insignificant . This finding is supported by observations from Gunkel et al. (2007) who found that effects of culture can interact with gender differences within cultures to produce different patterns of preference for types of leadership behaviors. Thus, the findings of this study might be interpreted as a reflection of the Romanian cultural setting in which the study was carried out.

managers 35 years of age and over significantly preferred transformational leadership behaviors, while the younger managers preferred the more autocratic transactional styles of leadership. It can be explained by two factors: managers in our sample that are 34 years and younger are entering work during a period of adjustment to an open economy, and given that these managers have no memory of working conditions under communism, they may favor a more transactional style of leadership as an alternative that would seem to promote faster change in the current undesirable economic status quo.

Limitations The study is based on self-reports. The generalizability of findings derived from a sample of Romanian managers may be questioned. Although this may limit the generalizability of our results, it is in itself an important finding for businesses interested in operating in Romania. Our sample consisted mainly of managers in full-time positions in commercial and service organizations (94%). We examined preferences for leadership styles in terms of the type of behaviors the respondents believed should be employed by the ideal and not actual manager.

Theoretical and Practical implications The current study makes an important contribution to the body of existing knowledge. As the first investigation of its kind to be conducted in Romania, it offers insights into the factors influencing preferences in Romanian organizations, as well as suggesting avenues for future research in other cultures and contexts. The findings within this study should prove useful to organizations attempting to manage leadership and change processes in Romania.  

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