Fundamentals of Educational Research David L. Brown, Ph.D Texas A & M Commerce EDCI 695 Research Methodology

Types of Sampling Simple Random Sampling means that the researcher selects participants (or units, such as schools) for the sample so that any sample of size N has an equal probability of being selected from the population. Simple Random Sampling is the most popular and rigorous form of sampling from a population. Purposeful or Convenience Sampling means that the researcher selects individuals because they are available, convenient, and represents some characteristics the researcher seeks to study. Stratified Sampling means that the researcher stratifies the population on some specific characteristic (i.e., gender, age) and then using simple random sampling, sample from each stratum of the population. Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Population and Samples Proportional Stratified Sampling Approach Target Population Sample Sample Population Sample All high school teachers in one city All high school biology teachers Students in all community colleges Students in one community college Adult educators in all schools of education Adult educators in five schools of education in the Midwest Proportional Stratified Sampling Approach Population (N = 9,000) Random Sampling Boys N = 6,000 200 .66 of population Girls N = 3,000 100 .33 of population Sample = 300 Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Stratified Random Sampling *For this study, sites with six or less classrooms were considered small sites. Sites with more than six classrooms were considered large sites.

Selection of Sample

Obtaining Informed Consent An informed consent is a statement that participants sign before they participate in the research. It is an agreement between the researcher and the participants. The researcher agrees to protect the rights of the participants. The participant agrees to be involved in the study and acknowledges that their rights are protected. Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Important Considerations Permission is necessary before you can enter a site and collect data. Approval comes from leaders or persons of authority in organizations. Permission is obtained formally in a letter of request: Purpose of the study Amount of time you will be at the site collecting data Time required of participants How the data or results will be used State specific activities to be conducted Benefits to the organization or individual Provisions to protect the anonymity of participants Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Securing Different Types of Permissions In most educational studies, permissions are needed from several individuals and groups before you can gather data. Permissions may be required from: Institutions or organizations (e.g., school district) Specific sites (e.g., the secondary school) An individual participant or group of participants and their parents (e.g., 10th graders and their parents) Your own campus (i.e., your university or college institutional review board) Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Elements of Informed Consent Title of Research Project Voluntary participation Right to withdraw Purpose Procedures Right to ask questions, obtain results, and right to anonymity No known risks Benefits Signatures needed/Assent of child Information about investigator Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Types of Variables and Constructs An Independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that influences or effects an outcome or dependent variable. Researchers study independent variables to see what effect or influence they have on the outcome. For instance, consider this research question: Do students who spend more instructional time in class have higher math scores than students who spend less time? Explanation: Time on math instruction influences the outcome, which is math scores. A Dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or influenced by the independent variable. Examples of dependent variables are: Achievement scores on a test Organizational climate of a junior high school Leadership skills of principals Cost-effectiveness of student affairs programs in colleges Ask yourself, “What is the outcome in this study?” Taken from: Creswell, John (2002) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Merrill/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Preparing and Organizing the Data for Analysis Data Set

Teacher Implementation Fidelity One of the biggest challenges of any study of alternative programs is determining the degree to which the experimental program actually gets implemented. This is particularly problematic when the research is studying classes in which teachers are just learning how to implement a new program. Does an evaluation of a program that is being implemented by novices and compared to teachers implementing long-standing control programs lead to a fair evaluation? Observations of both the experimental and control classes should be conducted to determine the extent to which the actual experience of the two groups differs. Researchers should design methods to closely monitor program implementation and collect data for analysis.