Argumentation

What is argumentation? Argumentation is an appeal to reason. It is a reasoned, logical way of presenting a position, belief, or conclusion. It takes a stand—supported by evidence— and urges people to share the writer’s perspective and insights.

What is the purpose of argumentation? The purpose is: To consider all viewpoints What you expect your argument to accomplish How you wish your audience to respond

The structure: An introduction with a clear thesis or claim (remember the thesis must be debatable and can be tested with an antithesis) A clear sense of purpose and audience (why are you writing this and to whom/what are you writing?) Evidence – facts and opinions Appeals – facts, emotions, credibility Nods to the opposition and then refutation to it

Four Criteria to Evaluate Evidence: Relevance: information should support the thesis/claim being made and support the argument. Representative : evidence should represent your side and the opposing side. Just make sure most of your information is about your position.

Criteria continued 3. Sufficient: there should be enough evidence to support the claim. The amount of evidence you need depends on -length of the paper -your audience -your thesis statement 4. Accuracy: Data shouldn’t be used unless it is accurate and up-to-date.

Acknowledging the Opposition A writer acknowledges the points of view of those that do not agree with him/her in order to refute that position. When an argument is so compelling that it cannot be dismissed you should concede. This means to admit that it is valid.

How do you get to a conclusion? You move from evidence to a conclusion by using deductive reasoning or inductive reasoning. Most arguments use both types of reasoning. Deductive reasoning: proceeds from general to specific Syllogism: basic form of deductive argument and consists of a major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. When a conclusion follows logically from the major to minor premise then the argument is valid. Inductive reasoning: moves from individual observations to a general conclusion (no specific form) First, decide on a question to be answered: hypothesis. Gather evidence that is relevant to the question. Move from your evidence to your conclusion by making an inference.

Recognizing Fallacies Fallacies are illogical statements that may sound reasonable but are actually deceptive and dishonest. The following are common fallacies you should both recognize and avoid:

Fallacies Begging the question: this tactic asks the readers to agree that certain points are self-evident when they are not False Analogy: a comparison that ignores important dissimilarities between what is being compared Personal Attack: tries to divert attention from the facts of the argument by attacking the person making the argument Generalizations: sometimes called jumping to conclusion – occurs when a conclusion is based off too little evidence

Fallacies Either/Or: writers suggest only two alternative exist Equivocation: the meaning of a key term changes at some point in the argument Red Herring: the focus of the argument is shifted You Also: the opponent’s argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his/her own advice Appeal to Doubtful Authority: attempt to strengthen an argument with references to experts or famous people – not valid when the person referenced has no expertise on the subject.

More fallacies! Misleading statistics: statistics that are distorted or misinterpreted to influence the audience Post hoc: because two events occur close together in time the first must cause the second Non sequitur: a statement does not logically follow form a previous statement

Cross Reference Look back over pages 548-562. What key terms (those in bold, italics, etc.) are identified in the book and not in your notes? Add those to your notes.