The Science of Child Development Children 2 The Science of Child Development John W. Santrock

The Science of Child Development How Is Child Development a Science? What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? What Are Some Challenges in Child Development Research?

How Is Child Development a Science? Stories of Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson Seeker of self-identity versus dedicated scholar Impact of home life on one’s perceptions

How Is Child Development a Science? Science defined not by what it investigates, but by how it investigates

The Importance of Research in Child Development Information from personal experiences not always objective Generalize what is observed; misinterpretations and misreadings Memories turn into lifetime “truths” Examine research to clarify

The Scientific Research Approach The Importance of Research in Child Development The Scientific Research Approach Scientific method Used to discover accurate information Conceptualize problem Collect information (data) Draw conclusions Revise conclusions and theory Fig. 2.1

The Scientific Research Approach The Importance of Research in Child Development The Scientific Research Approach Theory: interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps explain and predict Hypotheses: specific, testable assumptions and predictions that are derived from theories

Five Major Theories Psychoanalytic Cognitive What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Five Major Theories Psychoanalytic Cognitive Behavioral and social cognitive Ethological Ecological

Psychoanalytic Theories What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Psychoanalytic Theories Describe development as: Primarily unconscious Heavily colored by emotion Behavior is surface characteristic Analyze symbolic workings of mind Emphasize early experiences Biological process important here

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Three structures of personality: Id Ego Superego Freud’s Stages Oral: Birth to 18 months Anal: 18 months to 3 years Phallic: 3 to 6 years (Oedipus complex) Latency: 6 years to puberty Genital: puberty onward

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Eight stages of development Primary human motivation is social Eight stages unfold over the life span At each stage, unique developmental task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved

Erikson’s Life-Span Stages What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Erikson’s Life-Span Stages Initiative vs. guilt Generativity vs. stagnation Early childhood Integrity vs. despair Intimacy vs. isolation Industry vs. inferiority Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Infancy: 1 to 3 years Middle adulthood Late adulthood Middle and late childhood Early adulthood Trust vs. mistrust Infancy: 1st year of life Identity vs. identity confusion Adolescence Fig. 2.3

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories Contributions Early experiences Family relationships Development view of personality Unconscious Adult changes Criticisms Difficult to test Sexual underpinnings Unconscious too important Negative view Culture- and gender- biased

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Children actively construct their understanding of the world Assimilation: incorporation of new information into existing knowledge Accommodation: adjusting knowledge to fit new information and experience

Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage Coordinate sensory experiences with physical actions (0–2 years) Sensorimotor Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage Represent world with words, images, drawings (2–7 years) Perform operations; logical replaces intuitive (7–11 years) Think in abstract and more logical terms (11 years–adulthood) Fig. 2.4

Comparison of Piaget’s, Freud’s, and Erikson’s Stages What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Comparison of Piaget’s, Freud’s, and Erikson’s Stages Periods of Life-Span Development Infant stages Adolescent and adult stages Middle and late childhood stages Early childhood stages Fig. 2.5

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Sociocultural cognitive theory Culture and social interaction guide cognitive development Social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers advances cognitive development—learning to adapt

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Memory, attention, and reasoning involves learning to use society’s inventions (e.g., math and language) Knowledge is best advanced in cooperative activities

Information-Processing Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Information-Processing Theory Comparing computer to human brain Hardware analogous to brain Software analogous to cognition Emphasizes how individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it

Evaluating the Cognitive Theories What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Evaluating the Cognitive Theories Contributions Positive view Active construction of understanding Importance of developmental changes Detailed descriptions Criticisms Pureness of Piaget’s stages Lack individual variations Info-processing theory lacks description Unconscious

Behavioral Theories Three approaches: Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Behavioral Theories Three approaches: Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura Observations in controlled labs Behavior: observable and measurable Behavior is learned from experience with the environment

Behavioral Theories Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Behavioral Theories Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to produce response Watson: little Albert and a white rat Generalizing fear as a involuntary response

Behavioral Theories Skinner’s Operant Conditioning What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Behavioral Theories Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Consequences of behavior changes probability of behavior’s occurrence; use of punishments and rewards

Social Cognitive Theories What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Social Cognitive Theories Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Observational learning: use imitation or modeling to adopt behaviors Emphasizes behavior, environment, and person/cognition interactions

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model Fig. 2.6 Behavior Person/ Cognitive Environment

Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Contributions Scientific research Environmental determinants Observational learning Person and cognitive factors Criticisms Lack focus on cognition Overemphasize environmental determinants Too little attention to developmental changes, creativity, and spontaneity

Ethological Theory Behavior Strong influence of biology and evolution What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Ethological Theory Behavior Strong influence of biology and evolution Characterized by critical or sensitive periods for some experiences Lorenz: imprinting is rapid, innate learning within a critical period of time Bowlby’s view of attachment

Evaluating Ethological Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Evaluating Ethological Theory Contributions Biological and evolutionary Careful observations Sensitive periods of development Criticisms Too rigid on critical and sensitive periods Emphasis on biological foundations Inadequate attention to cognition Animal research

What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced by five environmental systems: Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Now a “bioecological” theory Macrosystem Chronosystem

Ecological Theory Caring for children: A mesosystem connection What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Ecological Theory Caring for children: A mesosystem connection Provide assistance to families Encourage parents to volunteer Involve families in learning at home Include families in school decisions Coordinate community collaboration

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development Fig. 2.7

Evaluating Ecological Theory What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? Evaluating Ecological Theory Contributions Macro and micro dimensions Connections of environments Sociohistorical influences Criticisms Lacks emphasis on biological foundations Inadequate attention to cognitive processes

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation What Are the Main Theories of Child Development? An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation Orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach Selects whatever is considered the best in each theory

Methods for Collecting Data What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Methods for Collecting Data Observation Laboratory: controlled, unnatural setting Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in real-world settings; no control or manipulation Surveys and interviews: clear, unbiased questions

Figure 2.10 25 5 30 15 10 20 Girls Boys Percent of parent-child interactions in which the parent explained science concepts Parents’ explanations of science to sons and daughters at a science museum

Methods for Collecting Data What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Methods for Collecting Data Standardized test: test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring in percentiles Psychophysiological measures Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Methods for Collecting Data What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Methods for Collecting Data Case study: in-depth look at individual Cannot be duplicated/tested in others Caution when generalizing to others Individual is genetically unique Involves judgments, unknown reliability

Research Designs Descriptive research: observes and records behavior What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Research Designs Descriptive research: observes and records behavior Correlational research: strength of relationship between two or more events or characteristics Correlation coefficient: degree of association between two variables

Possible Explanations for Correlational Data What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Possible Explanations for Correlational Data Fig. 2.12 Possible explanations for this correlation causes Observed correlation and cause both

Research Designs Experimental Research What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Research Designs Experimental Research Experiment: carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors is manipulated while all other factors are held constant (cause and effect) Independent and dependent variables Experimental and control groups

Principles of the Experimental Strategy What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Principles of the Experimental Strategy Dependent variable Independent variable Fig. 2.13

What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Time Span of Research Cross-sectional approach: individuals of different ages are compared at one time Longitudinal approach: same individuals studied over period of time, usually several years or more

Research Journals Journal Articles: What Are the Main Research Methods in Child Development? Research Journals Journal Articles: Published scholarly and academic information, usually for other professionals Each article includes: Abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references

Conducting Ethical Research What Are Some Challenges in Child Development Research? Conducting Ethical Research Rights of participants and responsibilities of researchers Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception

Minimizing Bias Gender bias: some differences unduly magnified What Are Some Challenges in Child Development Research? Minimizing Bias Gender bias: some differences unduly magnified Cultural and ethnic bias Deliberate exclusion Ethnic gloss: using an ethnic label to portray an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it is

Thinking Critically About Research What Are Some Challenges in Child Development Research? Thinking Critically About Research Be cautious about media reporting Don’t assume Don’t overgeneralize Don’t accept a single study Don’t accept causal conclusions from correlational studies Always consider the source

Children 2 The End