The impact of human-centric design on the adoption of information systems: A case study of the spreadsheet Christopher Scaffidi Center for Applied Systems and Software School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Oregon State University Corvallis, OR, United States

Motivation "Despite tools’ potential, auditors keep using spreadsheet to execute most of the work" "The most relevant tool in the context of statutory auditors daily work is Spreadsheets, which is mentioned by 45.5% as the most relevant in their work, by 41.8% as the second most relevant, and is mentioned by 98.2% as one of the 3 most important tools in statutory auditors’ work" --Pedrosa, Costa, Laureano (CISTI'2015) Let's learn from spreadsheets so that we can achieve similar adoption success with our future information system tools!!!

Methodology Case study Other possible methods Weighs the evidence for and against propositions Qualitative method Analysis of publications about the subject of interest (spreadsheets) Other possible methods Interviews and surveys Except many important people who influenced spreadsheets are now deceased Also questionable whether they would remember accurately Quantitative analyses Data sets do not exist for the most important questions (e.g., what usability attributes of spreadsheets affected adoption?)

Propositions Not all quality attributes played an equal role in driving adoption of this information system To determine: reliability? reusability? usability? performance? What factors appear to have caused adoption? Redwine-Riddle maturation model applies to the adoption of this information system

Stages of the Redwine-Riddle maturation model (with stage criteria) Stage 1, Concept formulation: Appearance of key technology idea addressing articulated problem - Informal circulation of ideas - Convergence on a compatible set of ideas - General publication of solutions to part Stage 2, Development and extension: Definition via seminal papers and/or demonstration systems - Trial, preliminary use of the technology - Clarification of the underlying ideas - Extension of general approach to broader solution Stage 3, Enhancement & exploration: Usable capabilities exist; usage shifts outside development group - Major extension of approach to other domains - Development of training materials - Stabilization and porting of the technology - Use of the technology to solve real problems - Derivations of results indicating value Stage 4, Popularization: Substantial evidence of value and applicability - Production-quality, supported versions - Commercialization and marketing - Propagation of technology through community

Stage 1, Concept formulation Basic research and concept formulation Mattessich's work, beginning in the 1960's Appearance of key idea and articulation of the problem The need for periodic operating budgets The need for formalization of budgetary accounting The potential benefits of computational modelling Elements of Redwine-Riddle maturation model Informal discussion, compatible ideas, publications

Stage 2, Development and extension Definition via seminal papers and/or demonstration systems Early attempts at optimization included linear programming, dynamic programming, distribution sampling Limited adoption By 1976, only 39% of firms claimed to have modeled the "total company" Tended to be "satisficing" (as Mattessich proposed) rather than optimizing Elements of Redwine-Riddle maturation model Preliminary trials, clarification of the idea, extension of the approach

Stage 3, Enhancement and exploration Usable capabilities become available Dan Bricklin, 1979, VisiCalc Ledger and backward-looking analyses Soon grew into usage for forward-looking analyses (simulations, predictions) Shift to usage outside of development group Explosive commercial success Features attuned to usability: apparent simplicity, and responsiveness Elements of Redwine-Riddle maturation model Application to another problem domain, training manual, ported, application to real problems, many people obtaining value

Stage 4, Popularization Substantial evidence of value/applicability Appearance of copmetitors (Lotus, Microsoft) Appearance of complements (HAL, PUP) Widespread adoption (over 30% of US computer users in 1997, 60% in 2001) Appearance of derivatives (NoPumpG, Penguims, Forms/3) Elements of Redwine-Riddle maturation model Production-quality, supported systems, commercialization and marketing, propagation of the technology

Discussion: Lessons and implications Lengthy, collaborative timeline of information system innovation Over 20 years (similar to other technologies that Redwine-Riddle discuss) Multiple forms of evidence that are important Sales-minded validation was very important; some laboratory studies Importance of usability over optimality Spreadsheets are not optimal; firms today still struggle with optimizing The risk of success Sub-optimality and unreliability of spreadsheets are now a threat to us all

Conclusions Confirmed: Not all quality attributes played an equal role in driving adoption of this information system Sources very often discussed usability in the context of adoption Flexibility (using technology for many different purposes) was also mentioned Mostly confirmed: Redwine-Riddle maturation model applies to the adoption of this information system Caveats: Difficulty of pinpointing exact moment of transition from Enhancement/exploration to Popularization; even then, difficult to estimate stages of popularization in terms of proportions of the population

Thank you… To CISTI for this opportunity to present To you for your feedback and questions