Chapter 5 The American Revolution, 1776-1783

The Challenges of the Revolutionary War [To launch author video, click video icon] When actual fighting broke out in 1775 between American Revolutionaries and British Armies, no one in the world thought that the Americans had a chance against The Great British Empire. And yet both sides had real challenges in conducting the American Revolutionary War, the British, for example, fighting far from home. It was very difficult to communicate with the government at the same time that they were fighting a war America. Their generals made tactical mistakes, often failing to follow up on victories by defeating the Americans completely. The Americans, on the other hand, they had no army. They had no navy. They had no government when the fighting broke out. They had to find weapons. They had to get cannons. They had to find gunpowder. They also, of course, were primarily farmers. And so farmers suddenly, overnight, had become soldiers. And that required training and that required discipline and that required leadership, none of which they had in great numbers. So both sides faced tremendous challenges as the war began. And in both cases they adapted as the war unfolded to deal with those challenges.

Fighting for Independence British confident of victory Four times larger population, more resources Strongest Navy in world Britain’s tasks Supply troops an ocean away Crush the popular spirit of independence British underestimate Americans’ commitment to their political ideology and have poor war strategy 21

Building a Professional Army Washington wants professional army – rejects guerrilla warfare strategy Continental army is to be a fighting force and symbol of the republican cause Militia’s role minor but they do maintain political control in areas not occupied by British troops

Common Sense Common Sense Thomas Paine’s inspiring pamphlet was originally published anonymously because of its treasonous content.

1776: Washington’s Narrow Escape Washington Faces Largest British Army Ever Battle of Long Island Battle of Trenton, Christmas 1776 Battle of Princeton Winter at Morristown- Washington uses Princeton and Trenton to invigorate army and train The year 1776 was one of near disaster for the colonial army. General Howe would assemble the largest British army ever to find and defeat it. While trying to get time to train his soldiers, Washington would fight a series of retreats. At the end of the year, after the British had entered winter camp, Washington would cross the Delaware River, strike at Trenton, and enter winter camp himself at Morristown, where the colonial army would be trained for the next spring’s battles.

Testing the American Will Summer 1776—fighting shifts to New York American army routed on Long Island New York City captured Washington forced to retreat through New Jersey British think rebels will soon capitulate 22

“Times That Try Men’s Souls” General Howe issues pardon for all who swear loyalty to Britain 3000 accept Washington’s bedraggled army needs win December 25, 1776—Washington captures 900 Hessians in Trenton January 3, 1777—Washington captures Princeton 23

Major Campaigns in New York and New Jersey, 1776–1777 Why did Washington lead his army from Brooklyn to Manhattan and from there to New Jersey? How could General Howe have ended the rebellion in New York? What is the significance of the Battle of Trenton?

The American Revolution, 1775–1781

George Washington at Princeton George Washington at Princeton by Charles Willson Peale

American Society at War Choosing Sides- Tories, Patriots, and none Militia and Army Militia- fought for states Army for enlisted men Problems of Finance and Supply Contrary to popular belief, the entire nation did not rise up to protest the American Revolution. Colonial society was split between three groups, the Tories, the Patriots, and those who were disinterested. The colonial army was divided into two groups, the army, whose soldiers enlisted, and the militiamen, who were sent by their states to fight. Any war effort requires money, and the United States was rich only in resources. It needed to find outside sources to provide much-needed supplies. Until it won a major victory, the Continental army would have grave difficulties meeting its needs.

Building a Professional Army African Americans in the Revolution New England militias attract slaves with promises of emancipation Southern slaves more likely to side with British

Four Soldiers (ca. 1781) This sketch of militiamen by a French soldier at Yorktown, Virginia, shows an American frontiersman turned soldier (second from right), and it is also one of the earliest depictions of an African American soldier.

Victory in a Year of Defeat British strategy Cut off New England from other colonies Lure Continental army into decisive battle The plan for cutting off New England Burgoyne’s army moves in from Canada Howe’s army moves up from New York They meet in Albany 24

1777: Setbacks for the British The Campaign of 1777 Would launch a three-pronged attack on New York Prong One, south from Canada Prong Two, east from western New York Prong Three, up the Hudson River from New York City The Alliance with France The importance of Saratoga- John Burgoyne is captured and surrenders over 7000 troops Oct 17,1777. Showed allies they could hold their own. The British plan in 1777 was to divide and conquer. By dividing New England from the middle and southern colonies, the British hoped to kill the rebellion. This plan was filled with overconfidence and poor communication. All three ended in defeat for the redcoats. The largest failure was the Battle of Saratoga, in which British general John Burgoyne was captured. This was the first major victory for the United States. It showed potential allies that it could stand against the world’s strongest army and hold its own. Because of the victory at Saratoga, the American Revolution became a world war. France would enter into the conflict and provide war material and much needed ships to the war effort.

The French Alliance French help colonists to get back at Britain for defeat in Seven Years’ War Benjamin Franklin essential to alliance with France Effects of Saratoga Convinces France that colonists are serious enough to become formal allies British sue for peace to prevent Franco-American alliance 25

Major Campaigns in New York and Pennsylvania, 1777 What were the consequences of Burgoyne’s strategy of dividing the colonies with two British forces? How did life in Washington’s camp at Valley Forge transform the American army? Why was Saratoga a turning point in the American Revolution?

General John Burgoyne Commander of Britain’s northern forces. Burgoyne and most of his troops surrendered to the Americans at Saratoga on October 17, 1777.

Actions on the Frontier 1778: Both Sides Regroup War in the East in 1778 General Clinton replaces Howe Washington winters in Valley Forge Colonial army is shaped into a professional army. Actions on the Frontier After the debacle at Saratoga, General Howe would be replaced with General Henry Clinton. This would be a common theme among the British during this war; when one failed, another would take his place with new ideas and strategies. While Washington was in winter camp at Valley Forge, the colonials there were shaped into a professional army. At the same time that major battles were being fought in the colonies, British soldiers were stirring up Native American forces in the Ohio River Valley. These actions were intended to result in support from the colonial army, and thus divided, it would be easier to conquer. But things did not end up that way.

The French Alliance British offer repeal of all laws since 1763, respect for colonial taxation rights February 1778—Alliance with France concluded 25

Western Campaigns, 1776–1779 How did George Rogers Clark secure Cahokia and Vincennes? Why did the American army destroy Iroquois villages in 1779? Why were the skirmishes between settlers and Indian tribes significant for the future of the trans-Appalachian frontier?

Savannah and Charleston- Brits rout colonials. The War in the South Reasons to Move South British try to find Tories in the South to assist. Pillage and rape of colonials did not help. Savannah and Charleston- Brits rout colonials. Battle of Camden, Brits defeat Horatio Gates. Replaced by Nathaniel Greene The Carolinas- Greene rallies troops and is followed by Lord Cornwallis away from protection. The Battle of Yorktown The result- French and Washington surround Cornwallis and force surrender. The British moved south to try and locate the Tory base that they believed would rise up and support them against the colonials. However, their actions of raping and pillaging the colonials they found did not endear themselves to whatever Tories were still in the area. At the Battle of Camden, the British would defeat the colonials and the hero of Saratoga—Horatio Gates, commander of colonial forces—would flee for his life. He would be replaced by Nathaniel Greene. Greene would lead Cornwallis away from his supply base up north, closer toward Greene’s own support network. Cornwallis took the bait and soon found himself on the Yorktown peninsula, surrounded. He would surrender his army, and with that, the war came to a conclusion.

Major Campaigns of the South, 1778–1781 Why did the British suddenly shift their campaign to the South? Why were the battles at Savannah and Charleston major victories for the British? How did Nathanael Greene undermine British control of the Deep South?

Yorktown, 1781 Why did Cornwallis march to Virginia and camp at Yorktown? How was the French navy crucial to the American victory? Why was Cornwallis forced to surrender?

Problems with Our “Allies”- France and Spain wanted to beat England. The Treaty of Paris Negotiators- Congress sends diplomats to secure peace. Adams and Franklin, Jay Problems with Our “Allies”- France and Spain wanted to beat England. America Enters into Solo Negotiations with Great Britain The Treaty of Paris, 1783 As soon as the war had begun, the United States sent diplomats to England to work to end it and secure a peace. Although the negotiators would fluctuate throughout the war, they were led by Benjamin Franklin and John Adams. As soon as the war in the New World ended, it became obvious to the diplomats that France and Spain were not interested in ending the war. England’s army was defeated, but not her navy nor her people. France wanted England beaten and was unwilling to broker negotiations with it for the United States. Spain had entered the war against England, but had never sided with the American colonies. Franklin would enter into negotiations with England and secure the Treaty of Paris of 1783, which brought the war to an end.

Winning the Peace American negotiators – John Jay, Benjamin Franklin and John Adams Peace Treaty of Paris - 1783 U.S. independence recognized U.S. gets all territory east of Mississippi River, between Canada and Florida U.S. secures fishing rights in North Atlantic U.S. will help British merchants and Loyalists collect debts 28

The Loyalist Dilemma Loyalists see rebellion as endangering “life, liberty, and property” More than 100,000 loyalists leave U.S. at war’s end Loyalists came from all occupations and social classes Loyalists treated poorly by both sides British never fully trust Loyalists and treat them as second class citizens Patriots seize property, imprison, execute some 27

North America, 1783 What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris? Why might the ambiguities in the treaty have led to conflicts among the Americans, the Spanish, and the British?

War as an Engine of Change Republican Ideology State Constitutions The Articles of Confederation Was the American Revolution truly revolutionary? What had begun as a crisis for political rights had ended in a separation from the mother country. But once that separation was completed, the system of laws and standards remained as it was before the war. One major change was the desire to codify the civil liberties and the powers of the states in the face of the national government. This is seen in the crafting of our first system of national government, the Articles of Confederation, which created a loose network tying the states together, but only when necessary.

The Exodus of Loyalists Freedom of Religion Equality and Its Limits The Social Revolution The Exodus of Loyalists Freedom of Religion Equality and Its Limits The Paradox of Slavery The Status of Women Native Americans and the Revolution Those who had remained loyal to England during the war now found themselves ostracized from their communities. The war now over, they fled from the United States after losing much of their property. It is important to remember that although this was a war fought for the independence of the American colonies and its citizens and that the Declaration of Independence declared that “all men were created equal,” after the war there was not much change for some groups. While the strict class structure that existed in England had never fully developed in the colonies, what had been practiced was still in effect. Slavery was still practiced and would be a major political and social issue for almost another hundred years. A major change in American society following the conclusion to the American War for Independence was the growth of non-Anglican churches. They would play a role in shaping the evolution of society and politics that will be carried out through the remainder of U.S. history.

Religious Development The Congregational Church developed a national presence in the early nineteenth century, and Lemuel Haynes, depicted here, was its first African American preacher.

Emergence of an American Culture Independence Day America’s “Destiny” The Revolution sparked a sense of nationalism amongst the newly freed colonies. It was not long after the Revolution that July 4 became the day set aside to memorialize the event. Unlike the Old World, the United States did not have an ancient history to draw from for its national identity. Therefore, it became seen as a nation set apart by God for a higher purpose, to lead the world to greater liberty and freedom.

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