Chapter 22 Age of Nation-States.

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Presentation transcript:

Chapter 22 Age of Nation-States

1700

1800

1900

The Crimean War [1854-1856] Russia [claimed protectorship over the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire] Ottoman Empire Great Britain France Piedmont-Sardinia Causes Russia wanted to extend influence over Ottoman territories (Balkans) Russia angry when Ottomans assign care of holy places to Roman Catholics

The Crimean War War erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia occupies Moldavia and Walachia Ottoman Empire > “The Sick Man of Europe” France and Britain join the Ottomans, to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutral Motives > Great Britain? Mediterranean Sea is their lake Poorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sides Helped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians

The Crimean War

Crimean War Great Figures Florence Nightingale Alexander II of Russia Addressed inadequate medical treatment Helped found modern nursing profession First women to achieve international fame Alexander II of Russia Succeeded his father during the war Negotiated peace and instituted reform

Crimean War Results Russia gives up land around Danube River and Black Sea Russia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire Military embarrassments Large loss of life Image of invincible Russia crushed Reforms and rearms > becomes stronger Sardinia can work with France to try to est. Italy Concert of Europe? dissolved General meeting between nations to settle differences Balance of power restored

Ottoman Reforms Tanzimat – reorganization of the empire Liberalized economy Freedom of religion Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-Muslims Equal chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schools Abolished torture Gave property rights In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforce Reforms are an attempt to modernize & secularize the empire > make Ottomans more “European” Fighting to survive Need to gain loyalty of Christian subjects

Italian Nationalist Leaders Giuseppi Garibaldi [The “Sword”] King Victor Emmanuel II Giuseppi Mazzini [The “Heart”] Count Cavour [The “Head”]

Italian Unification & the Republicans Nationalism aspirations emerge when Napoleon I occupies Italy Giuseppe Mazzini first attempts to establish an Italian republic Approach called romantic republicanism Mazzini > most important nationalist leader in Europe Mazzini with help of Giuseppe Garibaldi lead insurrections Goal > Drive out Austria Obstacles to unification Austria Papacy People > conservatives in Italy 1850 > “Italy” > geographic expression rather than political entity

Count Camillo Cavour Minister of Piedmont (Kingdom of Sardinia) Transformed Italy into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy, rather than a republic How? Armed force Secret diplomacy Cavour a nationalist but different from Mazzini Rejected republicanism > support monarchy Economic and material progress replaced romantic ideals Used the French to achieve his goal Drives out Austrians in the north South > uses Garibaldi and romantic republicanism to conquer rest of peninsula

The Italian State Victor Emanuel I is named King of Italy (1861) Conservative Constitutional Monarchy Tensions high between industrialized Piedmont north and rural, poor Southern Italy Conservative constitutional monarchy put into place, but Parliament is filled with corruption Venetia in 1866 and Rome (minus Vatican City) in 1870 become part of Italy Still some territory in North controlled by Austria Desire to liberate “Italia irredenta” > unredeemed Italy

German Unification Most important political development in Europe between 1848-1914 Transformed balance of power Congress of Vienna est. German Confederation Made up of 39 diff states Austria & Prussia largest 1850s unification seemed remote William I (Hohenzollern family) becomes king in 1861 Fights with Parliament (liberals) over taxes to increase army Turns to Otto Von Bismarck for help

Otto von Bismarck Would be more responsible for reshaping European history more than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860’s-1890’s) Political career extensive Starts out a reactionary but mellows into a conservative Prime minister 1862 Used German nationalism as a strategy to enable Prussian conservatives to outflank Prussian liberals

Bismarck’s Wars & Government Bismarck did not want to include all German speaking lands into united Germany Especially Austria Unification required complex diplomacy Danish War (1864) Austria & Prussia defeat Denmark Bismarck gains prestige Through diplomacy gains allies in Italy, France, & Russia Austro-Prussian War (1866) Tension over territory won in Danish War Prussia wins Treaty of Prague makes Prussia only major power among German Confederation Northern German Confederation formed Each state governed itself > military under federal control Pres. was Prussian King & Chancellor was Bismarck Two House Legislature > Bundesrat & Reichstag Germany becomes essentially a military monarchy Prussian liberals defeated

Franco-Prussian War Bismarck needed southern Germany to complete unification Spanish Bourbon queen dethroned by coup & replaced by a Hohenzollern king France angry Ems telegram provokes war Napoleon III not only defeated but captured 1871 in Hall of Mirrors in Palace of Versailles the German Empire is declared Germany also receives Alsace and part of Lorraine A new powerful states emerges rich in natural resources Blow to European liberalism > Germany a conservative state France & Austria (led by Habsburgs) have to make a change

France Goes From Empire to Third Republic France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian war spelled the end of the liberal empire A govt. of national defense is created > new National Assembly > makes settlement with Prussia > Treaty of Frankfurt > people of Paris feel betrayed The Paris Commune – radicals and socialists attempt to govern Paris away from the rest of France, but are put down by the National Assembly at the cost of 20,000 lives / victory for the nation-state The Third Republic – when quarreling monarchists can’t agree on a new king, the National Assembly turns to a republic system Two legislative house a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage a Senate chosen indirectly President elected by both legislative houses

The Dreyfus Affair French Captain Alfred Dreyfus (Jewish) is falsely accused of passing secret information to the Germans (1894) Evidence was weak (forged) Dreyfus is sent to Devil’s Island, secrets still cont. to flow Evidence of forgery comes in, but he is not acquitted Dreyfus is still guilty according to the army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers Liberal novelist Emile Zola, along with numerous liberals, radicals, and socialists call for a new trial for Dreyfus President of France pardons Dreyfus and the conviction is set aside in 1906 Significance? Puts conservatives on the defensive for framing an innocent man and embracing anti-Semitism Unites groups in the political left Divides Third Republic

The Hapsburg Empire The empire in the 1840’-1860’s remained dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe Francis Joseph & ministers attempted to centralize administration Austrians (German Speaking) dominating govt. Failure to support Russia in Crimean War meant Tsar Alexander II would no longer help preserve Habsburg rule in Hungary Defeat by France in 1859 & Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed

The Hapsburg Dual Monarchy Empire made up of several different ethnicities Main two > Austrians and Hungarians Solution > Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 Dual Monarchy > Austria-Hungary Francis Joseph crowned king of Hungary Almost two different states besides sharing Common monarch, army, and foreign relations Magyars gained a free hand (kind of happy currently) Had their own govt. basically (their own parliament) City of Vienna *Center of medical & cultural excellence *Rebuilt to a grand scale *Vicious anti-Semitism aroused here

Nationality Unrest Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary The Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs opposed the Compromise of 1867 > Why? German speaking Austrians & Hungarian Magyars controlled all the other nationalities Czechs > most vocal > want what Hungarians have Political instability follows Nationalism grows stronger in late 1800s Language was the defining factor for a nation Wanting to be linked by a common race and language; Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationhood Consequences of nationalism? Two World Wars and unrest even today

Russian Reforms under Alexander II Serfdom abolished > for a long time only nation where it existed Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue trades Negatives – over a forty-nine year period serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land Result was large debt Fortunately in 1905, the govt. finally cancelled the debts Local government reform – local government run by a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective Underfunded Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury Military reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightly Largest military in Europe Repression in Poland – Poland placed under Russian laws and language Merely seen as a Russian province

Russian Revolutionaries – people or groups not satisfied by Alexander’s reforms Alexander Herzen Started a movement called populism, resistance to reforms set by Alexander Made up of students and intellectuals Went to the peasants with their message Sought a social revolution through peasantry Chief radical society > Land and Freedom Many peasants turned the radicals into the police Resort to terrorism after the Tsar uses harsh punishments Land and Freedom split into two groups > one dissolved and the other was the The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II

Alexander III Autocratic and repressive like Nicholas I Rolled back his father’s reforms Strengthened secret police and censorship of the press He confirms all the evils the revolutionaries feared His son will find out autocracy will not be able to survive the pressures of the 20th century

Great Britain – The Second Reform Act (1867) Must understand first > Britain seen as your ideal liberal state 1860’s push for the working class to have a vote Surprisingly the Conservatives in the House of Commons led by Benjamin Disraeli accomplishes this goal Almost doubles the electorate (1,430,000-2,470,000) This push is due to Chartist Movement (working class demanding vote & other constitutional reforms Refresher Two parts to British Parliament Lower house > House of Commons (Democratically elected) Upper house > House of Lords (National Legislature) By doing this Disraeli thought Conservatives would win more support He was right > Conservative Party dominates politics in 20th c. The new prime minister elected however is a liberal William Gladstone in 1868

The Great Ministry of Gladstone 1868-1874 Freedom of religion and class Competitive exams replace patronage for civil service Voting by secret ballot The Education Act of 1870 Established that the government, not the church would run the elementary schools, more schools built Significance? Removed abuses without destroying institutions Reforms a mode of state building > reinforced loyalty while abolishing abuses

Disraeli as Prime Minister Disraeli and Gladstone differed on most issues Disraeli actually talked a better line that he performed Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class He also gave protection to trade unions and allowed picket lines

The Irish Question Gladstone, again prime minister in 1880 has to deal with the Irish wanting home rule – Irish control of local government Disestablished the Church of Ireland (Anglican branch) Irish Catholics no longer had to pay for the Anglican Church Compensation provided for Irish tenants who were evicted from their land Another act > Tenant rights established Coercion Act passed to restore law and order to Ireland Irish still wanted a just land settlement Leader of Irish movement > Charles Stewart Parnell The Home Rule question fought in Parliament between 1886 and 1914 When the rule was finally passed (1914), it was then suspended due to World War I Significance Irish question is going to dramatically affect British politics British domestic issues could not be solved due to the political divisions the Ireland question created