SPORT

The Nature of Sport For most of us, when we think of sport we think of certain activities, exercise and spectator events; to Sociologists, sport – a set of competitive activities in which winners and losers are determined by physical performance within a set of established rules While sport is an important aspect of recreation, many forms of recreation do not involve sport (i.e. two skiers spontaneously decide to race one another – contest, yes; sport, no) As we have seen, institutions (i.e. family, education, government and economic systems, and religion) fulfill basic needs and reflect the most important aspects of society So where does sport come in? Sport teaches some of the basic values of society Promotes attachment to society Sport aids in identification of self with society In the U.S. sport plays a central role because it reflects our culture’s emphasis on achievement

The Nature of Sport To quote Vince Lombardi, “Winning is not everything. It is the only thing.” This is why we sport today continues to be dominated by achievement-oriented values Sport reflects society…so not surprising, males dominate the world of sports We do see some changes like the UT Vols women’s basketball team brings in more fans than the men’s U.S. Women’s Soccer Team is hands down more successful than the U.S. Men’s

The Nature of Sport This relationship between sport, society and culture can be seen best in what is called sport subculture – a group with distinct roles, values, norms, and beliefs that is organized around a sport activity. i.e. is violence among hockey players due to involvement in a “subculture of violence”? In this kind of subculture, violence is the expected response to a perceived challenge or insult; following the norm is essential then in acquiring and maintaining honor, especially when challenges are associated with masculinity What Sociologists Michael Smith found was that hockey players favor violence more than non-players AND because of expectations set by coaches and teammates, many hockey players act violently during games i.e. non-team sports like thoroughbred racing Thoroughbred jockeys have developed a strong emphasis on displaying dignity, maintaining integrity and reaming cool under pressure…the ideal within the subculture is ta fiery animal with a cool rider

The Nature of Sport “The cool jockey can wait patiently with a horse in a pocket and get through on the inside, risking the possibility that there will be non opening. Coolness is waiting far back in the pack, risking the possibility that his horse will not “get up” in time. Coolness is sparing the whip on a front-running horse when another animal has pressed into the lead, risking the possibility that once his horse is passed he will not get started again. All these instances are taken by observers as instances of a jockey’s character – In short, moral character is coolness in risky situations.” - Scott, 1981

The Nature of Sport In layman’s terms…Jockeys who fail to display gallantry, integrity, and coolness (the same qualities that are expected of them by the owners, trainers and fellow jockeys) do NOT receive their choice of horses and therefore win few races. Failing to take risks = missed opportunities

THEORECTICAL PERSPECITIVES

Culture & Sport Sport is a major social activity through which culture is not only created, but also reinforced “American sport embodies American values – striving for excellence, winning, individual and team competition, and materialism. Parents want their children to participate in sport because participation teaches them the basic values of American society and builds character.” - Stanley Eitzen, 1993 Sociologists agree that sport mirrors society, they disagree over which over the social implications of sport FUNCTIONALIST – concentrate on the benefits of sport CONFLICT THEORISTS – concentrate on the social downside of sport SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS – concentrate on personal meanings derived from sport

FUNCTIONALISISM What is the role of sports? Functionalists believe sport is important because it helps society run more smoothly by performing 4 important functions: Sport teaches basic beliefs, norms, and values Sport readies you for adult roles i.e. teaches you to work in organizations, teamwork, etc. We also see children exposed to competitive sport become more achievement motivated than those who are not exposed Sport promotes a sense of social identification Team binds people to their community and nation – i.e. Clevelanders are united by their Browns, Indians and Cavaliers Sport offers a safe release of aggressive feelings generated by the frustrations, anxieties, and stains of modern life It’s socially acceptable to yell and scream for an athletic team Sport encourages development of character Hard work, discipline, and self-sacrifced that is demanded by most sports teams become part of an athlete’s value system

FUNCTIONALISISM What are the social dysfunctions of sport? Since sport reflects society, it draws on achievement-oriented values that can be intensified to an extreme When achievement and winning come to be seen as the primary goals of sport, any method of winning (including violence and cheating) may be encouraged Violence In High School football, aggression is defended as preparation for “real life” Pressures are intensified at the professional level where many sports have developed an informal “enforcer” – a team member whose major responsibility is to intimidate, provoke and even injury opponents Cheating May not be as easy to always identify

FUNCTIONALISISM VIOLENCE CHEATING

CONFLICT THEORY Who has the power and how do the elites use power to satisfy their own interests? To conflict theorists, sport is a social institution in which the most powerful oppress, manipulate, coerce, and exploit others Point to the ways sport mirrors the unequal distribution of power and money in society “When the game is over, the enthusiasm dies, the solidarity runs short, and disharmony in other relations reasserts itself. Much as one hour a week cannot answer to the religious impulse, one game a week cannot answer to the solidarity needs of the racist, sexists or elitists. - Young, 1986 Basic social class divisions will continue to exist and to affect social relationships in a community even if the local team just won the World Series or Superbowl

CONFLICT THEORY Who has the power and how do the elites use power to satisfy their own interests? SCANDALS! In both college and professional sports, Americans are constantly reading about athletes who are taking drugs, cheating in school, accepting illegitimate “gifts” for recruitment, etc. BOTH coaches and athletes are involved in these scandals which conflict theorists use to point to the widespread acceptance of these practices to “get ahead”

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM Concerned with the symbols of sport The meanings and interpretations of these symbols are important because they affect the self-concepts and relationships of the people involved To best explain this, we will look at the work of Gary Alan Fine who studied Little League for 3 years Meanings Much of activities of the parents and coaches is to teach the rules of the game and values, but what we discovered was that these 10-12 year-old boys formed their own interpretations Hard work, competition = “masculine” value of dominance, “toughness” and risky behavior Social interaction and self-concepts The boys’ behavior convinced parents and coaches that the boys understood and accepted the values Boys then get praised for this behavior, which encourages them to continue it; “weaker” peers then saw a loss in self-esteem for not living up to those expectations

SOCIAL ISSUES IN SPORT

Sport & Social Mobility Many athletes DO use sport as a means out of poverty and many minority members work their way out of poverty through sport Question remains, does sport really promote social mobility? Upward mobility? Whatever sport they play, college athletes tend to be better educated, earn more money and have higher occupational prestige than their fathers Some people point to greats like Michael Jordan and Deion Sanders and argue that sport is a social class escalator for minorities Some make the argument that the emphasis on sport is HARMFUL because it diverts attention away from learning the academic and business-related skills that are necessary for success in mainstream America Minority members who spend their youth sharpening and honing in on their athletic skills at the expense of their general education will very likely be casualties of an unrealizable dream of wealth and glory

High School Athletes’ Chance of Going Pro

Sport & Racism One very clear sign of discrimination shows up in stacking – assignment of players to less central positions on the basis of race and ethnicity Central positions – involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities and thus offer a greater likelihood of influencing the outcome of the game i.e. in football, we see very few black quarterbacks Is there salary fairness? Discrimination is pay hugely exists at the professional level African Americans in the majority of professional sports, on average, are paid as much or more than their white counterparts…when level of performance is controlled, discrimination that discrimination appears Basically, African Americans must perform better than whites to avoid pay discrimination Discrimination in representation As on 2001, only one major sports franchise in the U.S. was owned by minorities No minorities in the NFL or MLB were board chairs, presidents or CEOs Only 21% of NBA head coaches were members of minority groups in 2001

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Sport & Sexism Prior to legislation like Title IX, schools didn’t have to have fund or even provide equal opportunities for girls and women’s athletics Consequences of sexism? Stereotypes have traditionally discouraged females from playing sports It was seen as “unfeminine,” if you ran your uterus would fall out, etc. Denied equal access to organized sport Women coaching in women’s programs declining Although Title IX increased equality for female athletes, it led to a DECREASE in the number of coaching and administrative positions held by women 2000: more than HALF of the NCAA women’s teams were coached by men Some even argue that Title IX could even be the reason for the decline because as the money and prestige has increased, men have found these coaching jobs more attractive…and with men being overwhelming in charge of athletic programs and the hiring, they are more likely to hire males Representation at the national level Even women who become professional levels earn significantly less than their male counterparts GOLF – leading money winner on the men’s tour typically earns more than TWICE as much as the leading money winner on the women’s tour