Research Methods in Psychology PSYCHOLOGY – SSC 210 Research Methods in Psychology Zahbia Sarfraz Lahore School of Economics

Goals of Psychological Research Description of social behavior Are people who grow up in warm climates different from those in cold climates? Establish a relationship between cause & effect Does heat cause higher amounts of aggression? Develop theories about why people behave the way that they do We dislike students from other universities to feel better about ourselves Application Creating effective therapeutic treatments, more successful negotiation tactics, and greater understanding amongst groups of people

Empirical Research Empirical Knowledge based on direct observation Must be observable & measurable Theory Set of ideas which try to explain what we observe Goal is to find support OR disprove

The Scientific Method

The Process of Doing Research First, select a topic Then, search the literature Find out what others have done that may be applicable to your area of interest

The Process of Doing Research Next, formulate hypotheses Hypothesis: specific statement of expectation derived from theory State the relationship between two variables Then pick your research method Experimental vs. Descriptive (Design)

The Process of Doing Research Finally, collect & analyze your data Accept or reject the hypothesis Build a theory

Research Methods Experimental vs. Nonexperimental Methods Nonexperimental methods include: Surveys Naturalistic Observations Clinical Method Correlational Studies

Nonexperimental Methods Survey Method Simply asking questions Interviews and questionnaires Advantage: more information in short time Disadvantage: results can be influenced by three factors: (a) sample of people who are surveyed can influence results (b) cannot be sure answers are honest © subtle factors have an influence e.g. based on how questions are asked, who asks the question etc.

Nonexperimental Methods (ii) Naturalistic Observation - based on recording behavior as it occurs in natural settings - methods of guarding against participant’s reactions ruining observations: (a) unobtrusive observations (b) unobtrusive measures (iii) Clinical Method method of studying people while they are receiving psychological help from a mental health professional

Nonexperimental Methods (iv) Correlational Method A research method that measures the relation between variables The primary difference between naturalistic observation and correlational studies is the use of quantitative measures in correlational studies

Nonexperimental Methods Correlations vary in direction - Positive correlation: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in the value of variable 2 - Negative correlation: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with decreases in the value of variable Correlation does not necessarily mean causation However, if we know two variables are perfectly correlated (+1.00) then we can predict with total accuracy the subject’s score on one variable if we know the other variable.

Interpreting Correlations

Nonexperimental Methods Advantages Sometimes manipulation of variables is impossible or unethical Efficient Disadvantages CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSATION Could be a lurking variable

Experimental Method What is an experiment? All experiments require at least two features: Dependent Variable: the response measure of an experiment that is dependent on the subject Independent Variable: a manipulation of the environment controlled by the experimenter - An experiment must have at least two levels or values

Experimental Method Cause & effect relationships Experimental group: group that receives some value of the IV Control group: not exposed to any level of the IV and is used for comparison If behavior in experimental group different from control group, the hypothesis that IV causes differences in DV supported

Experimental Method Conditions for formal experiments Random assignment of participants to experimental conditions Random sampling: selecting participants randomly from the population All alternative explanations for the findings have to be ruled out through strict experimental control (only IV should be changing)

Experimental Method Errors in experimental design can lead to the following problems: Demand Characteristics Cues available to subjects that allow them to determine purpose of experiment or what is expected by the experimenter 2. Experimenter Effects Experimenter influences the outcome accidentally by providing slight cues Experimenter’s appearance or manner may alter subject’s behavior

Experimental Method To eliminate these problems: Double Blind Experiments: The researcher and participant does not know whether they are in EG or CG. Double blind experiment is the best way to eliminate both effects When manner/appearance of experimenter can alter behavior of subject, can add another IV or control variable

Experimental Method What happens when there are more than 1 IV? Interaction: an experimental result that occurs when the levels of one IV are differentially affected by the levels of other IV Main effect: the condition in which the effect of one IV is the same at all levels of another IV

Ethical Principles of Research Ethics of research with human participants: - the most important rule is: do no harm - Freedom from coercion - Informed consent - Limited deception (should only involve aspects which will not influence decision to participate and must be revealed immediately afterwards) - Adequate debriefing - Confidentiality