Applied Cryptography Spring 2017 Asymmetric ciphers
Types of ciphers Symmetric Asymmetric (public key Block ciphers Stream ciphers
Symmetric vs. asymmetric cryptography Symmetric ciphers – sender and recipient use the same key Dkey(Ekey(m)) = m Substitution cipher is an example of a symmetric cipher Impractical for big systems – number of keys is quadratic in the number of users The solution – asymmtric algorithms. Think of a locked mailbox! Different keys for encryption and decryption Dprivate key(Epublic key(m)) = m
Asymmetric ciphers [From Information Security Group, ICU]
Mathematical foundations for public key cryptography Traditionally used one-way functions: Factoring Given primes p and q, it is easy to compute n=pq, but it is hard to factor n Discrete logarithm problem Given prime p and g,x<p, it is easy to compute y = gx mod p, but it is hard to compute logg y in Z*p. Square root problem Given primes p,q, n=pq and x<n, it is easy to compute y = x2 mod n, but it is hard to compute sqrt(y) in Z*n. Knapsack?
PKC schemes [From Information Security Group, ICU]
What we will use from number theory Fermat's little Theorem If p is prime and gcd(a,p) = 1 then ap1 = 1 mod p.
Complexity of modular operations Addition, subtraction Almost the same as without modulos, time complexity ( ) Multiplication: for given a and b find x such that ab mod n = x multiplication + division, i.e. time complexity ( 2)
What we will use from number theory Extended Euclid's algorithm d = gcd(a,b) - the greatest common divisor of integers a and b There exist integers x and y such that d = ax + by ExtendedEuclid(a, b) if b = 0 then return (a,1,0) (d’,x’,y’) ExtendedEuclid(b, a mod b) (d,x,y) (d’,y’,x’ – a/b y’) return (d,x,y)
Complexity of modular operations Division: for given a and b find x such that bx mod n = a Not always such x exists - we should have gcd(b,n) | a Extended Euclid's algorithm: finds x and y such that gcd(s,t) = su + tv Take b = s and t = n and set x = ua/gcd(b,n) Time complexity ( 3)
Complexity of modular operations Exponentiation: for given a and b find x such that ab mod n = x Time complexity?
Modular Exponentiation ModularExponentiation(base a, degree b, modulus n) let <bk,bk–1,...,b0> be the binary representation of b c 0 d 1 for i k downto 0 do c 2 c d (d d) mod n if bi = 1 then c c + 1 d (d a) mod n return d Time complexity T() = ( 3)
Modular Exponentiation - example ModularExponentiation(a, b, n) c 0; d 1 for i k downto 0 do c 2 c d (d d) mod n if bi = 1 then c c + 1 d (d a) mod n return d [Adapted from T.Cormen, C.Leiserson, R. Rivest]
What we will use from number theory Chinese reminder theorem Suppose n1, n2, …, nk are integers which are pairwise coprime. Then, for any given integers a1,a2, …, ak, there exists an integer x solving the system of simultaneous congruences: Furthermore, all solutions x to this system are congruent modulo the product N = n1n2…nk.
Merkle's puzzles (around 1974) Bob: 220 messages: "this is puzzle number x. This is the secret key y" Alice: decripts random message, sends Bob pair: (Ey(P),x)
Knapsack algorithms First generalized public key encryption algorithm [Merkle, Hellman, 1979]
Knapsack problem
Knapsack problem [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms Encryption - ok, Decryption ? [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms [From B.Schneier]
Knapsack algorithms What sizes of keys to use? Numbers in (superincreasing sequence) 200 to 400 bits modulus m 100 to 200 bits Unfortunately Merkle-Hellman (and quite a number of other) knapsack schemas are already broken... Few knapsack variations (Chor-Rivest) still are not broken, but probably can not be particularly recommended...
Diffie-Hellman (key-exchange algorithm) First public-key algorithm ever invented (1976) n - prime, g - number such that gcd(g,n) =1 Alice: chooses random large x, sends X = gx mod n Bob: chooses random large y, sends Y = gy mod n Alice, Bob: compute k = Yx mod n and k' = Xy mod n
RSA Asymmetric cryptographic algorithm published in 1978 The most popular asymmetric algorithm used today Now free to use – patent expired in 2000 Relies on the hardness of factoring a number consisting of two primes Actually invented by Cocks (from UK) in 1973, unfortunately the work was classified...
RSA
RSA
RSA - The authors [From Information Security Group, ICU]
The RSA public-key cryptosystem p,q - two large primes (100 digits or more) n = pq e - small odd integer that is relatively prime to (p – 1)(q – 1) d - integer such that de 1 (mod (p – 1)(q – 1)) (it can be shown that it always exists) P = (e,n) - public key S = (d,n) - secret key Encoding: P(M) = Me (mod n) Decoding: S(C) = Cd (mod n) It works!
RSA - Correctness n = pq e - odd and relatively prime to (p – 1)(q – 1) d - such that de 1(mod (p – 1)(q – 1)) P(M) = Me (mod n), S(C) = Cd (mod n) P(S(M)) = S(P(M)) = Med (mod n), ed = 1 + k (p – 1)(q – 1) M 0 (mod p) Med M(Mp–1)k(q–1) (mod p) M(1)k(q–1) (mod p) M (mod p) M 0 (mod p) Med M (mod p)
RSA - Correctness Med M (mod p) Med M (mod q) Thus Med M (mod n)
RSA - Complexity Encoding: P(M) = Me (mod n) Decoding: S(C) = Cd (mod n)
RSA - Speed [From B.Schneier]
RSA - Speed [From B.Schneier]
RSA - Speed [From B.Schneier]
Attacks on RSA
RSA Challange [From Information Security Group, ICU]
RSA Challange [From wikipedia.org]
Security assumptions for “textbook algorithms”
Attacks on RSA – “small” messages Finding m is trivial, if c = me mod n = me. If m is known to have a small finite set of values (e.g. 4 digit PIN), The value of m can be found by trying all possible values
Attacks on RSA – “small” messages E.g., what happens if we will directly encrypt 56 bit DES key ? [From W.Mao]
Attacks on RSA
Common modulus attack
Don’t sign with encryption key
Attacks on RSA
RSA - Choice of p and q r - a prime factor of p [From Information Security Group, ICU]
RSA and PKCS standard Encryption: (PKCS #1 v1.5, RFC 2313) first 0: to guarantee x < n 2: indicates encryption second 0: indicates end of padding Protects against: guessable message attacks (e.g., a yes/no message) cube root problem, for e = 3 broadcast problem, for e = 3 random non-zero octets 00 02 data 1 byte each 1 byte ≥ 8 bytes CS519, © A.Selcuk
RSA and PKCS standard PKCS #1 v2.2 RSA EME-OAEP mode
Bit security of RSA The following two problems are equally hard: given the RSA encryption of a message, retrieve the message given the RSA encryption of a message, retrieve the least significant bit of the message
ElGamal [From B.Schneier]
ElGamal [From B.Schneier]
Elliptic Curve Cryptography Fq - a finite field (q = pm) a,b Fq Consider all pairs (x,y) such that y2 = x3 + ax + b The number of such points lies between (q1/21)2 and (q1/2+1)2 This set of point is a group (with a bit tricky to define group operation :) The best known algorithms for discrete logarithm problem in such groups require time q1/2
Elliptic Curve Cryptography Emerging public key cryptography standard for constrained devices. 160 bit key length is equivalent in cryptographic strength to 1024-bit RSA. 313 bit ECC is equivalent to 4096 bit RSA As algebraic/geometric entities have been studied extensively for the past 150 years. Rich and deep theory suitable to cryptography First proposed for cryptographic usage in 1985 independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor Miller [From E.Savas]
Rabin's scheme Michael Rabin 1979 The Rabin cryptosystem is an asymmetric cryptographic technique, whose security, like that of RSA, is related to the difficulty of factorization. However the Rabin cryptosystem has the advantage that the problem on which it relies has been proved to be as hard as integer factorization, which is not currently known to be true of the RSA problem. It has the disadvantage that each output of the Rabin function can be generated by any of four possible inputs; if each output is a ciphertext, extra complexity is required on decryption to identify which of the four possible inputs was the true plaintext. [From www.wikipedia.org]
Rabin's scheme
Rabin's scheme Choose two large distinct primes p and q. One may choose Blum integers to simplify the computation of square roots modulo p and q. But the scheme works with any primes. Let n=p*q. Then n is the public key. The primes p and q are the private key. To encrypt a message only the public key n is needed. To decrypt a ciphertext the factors p and q of n are necessary. [From www.wikipedia.org]
Rabin's scheme
Rabin's scheme
Rabin's scheme For the same reason decryption assistance immediately factors n (Chosen plaintext attack)
Rabin's scheme Encryption: C = M2 mod n Decryption? Decryption: m1 = C(p+1)/4 mod p m2 = (p C(p+1)/4)mod p m3 = C(q+1)/4 mod q m4 = (q C(q+1)/4) mod q a = q (q1 mod p), b = p (p1 mod q) a + b = kq + lp = 1 (mod n) M1 = (am1+bm3)mod n M2 = (am1+bm4)mod n M3 = (am2+bm3)mod n M4 = (am2+bm4)mod n
Rabin's scheme
Post-quantum cryptography?
Post-quantum cryptography?
Post-quantum cryptography?
Post-quantum cryptography?
Post-quantum cryptography – options?