6 Inventories Financial and Managerial Accounting 10e C H A P T E R Needles Powers Crosson ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. © human/iStockphoto

Concepts Underlying Inventory Accounting Manufacturing companies have three kinds of inventory: Raw materials (goods used in making products) Work in process (partially completed products) Finished goods ready for sale For a merchandising company, inventory consists of all goods owned and held for sale in the regular course of business. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Accrual Accounting and Valuation of Inventories Inventory accounting applies accrual accounting to the determination of the cost of inventory sold. Inventory cost includes the following: invoice price less purchases discounts; freight-in, including insurance in transit; applicable taxes and tariffs. Inventory valuation depends on the prices of goods, which can vary during the year. Thus, it is necessary to make an assumption about the order in which items have been sold. Goods flow refers to the actual physical measurement of goods in the operations of a company. Cost flow refers to the association of costs with their assumed flow. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Merchandise in Transit Outgoing goods shipped FOB destination are included in the seller’s merchandise inventory, whereas those shipped FOB shipping point are not. Incoming goods shipped FOB shipping point are included in the buyer’s merchandise inventory, but those shipped FOB destination are not. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Merchandise Not Included in Inventory Goods to which the company does not hold title should not be included in its physical inventory. These include: Goods sold but not yet delivered to the buyer Goods held on consignment—merchandise that its owner (the consignor) places on the premises of another company (the consignee) with the understanding that payment is expected only when the merchandise is sold and that unsold items may be returned to the consignor ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Conservatism and the Lower-of-Cost-or-Market (LCM) Rule If the market value of inventory falls below its historical cost because of physical deterioration, obsolescence, or decline in the price level, a loss has occurred. This loss is recognized by writing the inventory down to market, or its current replacement cost. When the replacement cost of inventory falls below its historical cost, the lower-of-cost-or-market (LCM) rule requires that the inventory be written down to the lower value and that a loss be recorded. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Inventory Cost Under the Periodic Inventory System The value assigned to the ending inventory is the result of two measurements: quantity and cost. Under the periodic inventory system, quantity is determined by taking a physical inventory. Cost is determined by using one of the following methods: specific identification, average-cost, first-in, first-out (FIFO), or last-in, first-out (LIFO). The choice of method depends on the nature of the business, the financial effects, and the cost of implementation. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Specific Identification Method The specific identification method identifies the cost of each item in the ending inventory. It can be used only when it is possible to identify the units as coming from specific purchases. Although this method may appear logical, most companies do not use it for the following reasons: It is usually impractical, if not impossible, to keep track of the purchase and sale of individual items. When a company deals in items that are identical but bought at different prices, deciding which items were sold becomes arbitrary. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Average Cost Method Under the average-cost method (or weighted average method), inventory is priced at the average cost of the goods available for sale during the period. Average cost is computed as follows: Average Cost = Total Cost of Goods Available for Sale Total Units Available for Sale The average cost method tends to level out the effects of cost increases and decreases because the cost of the ending inventory is influenced by all the prices paid during the year and the cost of the beginning inventory. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Method The first-in, first-out (FIFO) method assumes that the costs of the first items acquired should be assigned to the first items sold. The costs of the goods on hand at the end of a period are assumed to be from the most recent purchases, and the costs assigned to goods that have been sold are assumed to be from the earliest purchases. Thus, the FIFO method values the ending inventory at the most recent costs and includes earlier costs in the cost of goods sold. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Last-In, First-Out (LIFO) Method The last-in, first-out (LIFO) method of costing inventories assumes that the costs of the last items purchased should be assigned to the first items sold and that the cost of the ending inventory should reflect the cost of the goods purchased earliest. The effect of LIFO is to value inventory at the earliest prices and to include the cost of the most recently purchased goods in the cost of goods sold. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Impact of Inventory Decisions In a period of rising prices, LIFO, which charges the most recent prices to the cost of goods sold, results in the lowest gross margin. In a period of rising prices, FIFO, which charges the earliest prices to the cost of goods sold, produces the highest gross margin. The gross margin under the average-cost method falls between the gross margins produced by LIFO and FIFO. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Effects on Income Taxes The Internal Revenue Service governs how inventories must be valued for federal income tax purposes. IRS regulations give companies a wide choice of inventory costing methods, including specific identification, average-cost, FIFO, and LIFO. During a period of rising prices, a company using LIFO will pay higher income taxes if it lets the inventory at year end fall below the level at the beginning of the year. This is called a LIFO liquidation—that is, units sold exceed units purchased for the period. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Inventory Cost Under the Perpetual Inventory System (slide 1 of 2) Under the perpetual inventory system, inventory is updated as purchases and sales take place. The cost of goods sold is accumulated as sales are made and costs are transferred from the Inventory account to the Cost of Goods Sold account. The cost of the ending inventory is the balance of the Inventory account. Goods are valued using one of these methods: specific identification, average-cost, FIFO, or LIFO. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Inventory Cost Under the Perpetual Inventory System (slide 2 of 2) The detailed records of purchases and sales maintained under the perpetual system facilitate the use of the specific identification method. When using the average-cost method under the perpetual system, an average is computed after each purchase or series of purchases. When using the FIFO or LIFO method, it is necessary to keep track of the components of inventory because, as sales are made, the costs must be assigned in the proper order. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Valuing Inventory by Estimation The most commonly used methods for estimating the value of the ending inventory are: the retail method, which estimates the cost of the ending inventory by using the ratio of cost to retail price. It can be used to estimate the cost without taking time to determine the cost of each item in the inventory. the gross profit method (or gross margin method), which assumes that the ratio of gross margin for a business remains relatively stable from year to year. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Gross Profit Method The gross profit method is used in place of the retail method when records of the retail prices of the beginning inventory and purchases are not available. This method is acceptable for estimating the cost of inventory for insurance claims and for interim reports, but it is not acceptable for valuing inventory in the annual financial statements. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Evaluating the Level of Inventory (slide 1 of 2) The level of inventory a company maintains has important economic consequences, and it involves conflicting goals. One goal is to have a great variety and quantity of goods on hand so that customers have a choice and do not have to wait for an item to be restocked. This conflicts with the goal of controlling costs, which favors keeping the level of inventory low. Managers control inventory by closely observing two ratios: inventory turnover and days’ inventory on hand. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Evaluating the Level of Inventory (slide 2 of 2) Inventory turnover is the average number of times a company sells an amount equal to its average level of inventory during a period. Day’s inventory on hand is the average number of days it takes a company to sell an amount equal to its average inventory. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Inventory Management To reduce their levels of inventory, many merchandisers and manufacturers use supply-chain management in conjunction with a just-in-time operating environment. With supply-chain management, a company uses the Internet to order and track goods that it needs immediately. A just-in-time (JIT) operating environment is one in which goods arrive just at the time they are needed. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Effects of Inventory Misstatements on Income Measurement (slide 1 of 2) The reason inventory accounting is so important to income measurement is the way income is measured. The higher the value of the ending inventory, the lower the cost of goods sold and the higher the gross margin. The lower the value of the ending inventory, the higher the cost of goods sold and the lower the gross margin. Because the figures for the ending inventory and the cost of goods sold are related, a misstatement in the inventory figure will cause an equal misstatement in gross margin and income before income taxes. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Effects of Inventory Misstatements on Income Measurement (slide 2 of 2) Because the ending inventory in one period becomes the beginning inventory in the following period, a misstatement in inventory valuation affects both periods. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

Inventory Misstatements and Fraud Inventory is particularly susceptible to fraudulent financial reporting. It is easy to overstate or understate inventory by including end-of-the-year purchase and sale transactions in the wrong fiscal year or by simply misstating inventory by mistake. A misstatement can also occur because of deliberate manipulation of operating results motivated by a desire to enhance the market’s perception of the company, obtain bank financing, or achieve compensation incentives. ©2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.