Chapter 25 Money Creation Key Concepts Summary Practice Quiz Internet Exercises ©2002 South-Western College Publishing

In the Middle Ages, what was used for money? Gold was the money of choice in most European nations

Who were the founders of our modern-day banking? Goldsmiths, people who would keep other people’s gold safe for a service charge

What was the first currency? People would use the receipts they received from goldsmiths as paper money

How did the early goldsmiths act as the first banks? Some goldsmiths made loans and received interest for more gold than the actual gold held in their vaults

What is fractional reserve banking? A system in which banks keep only a percentage of their deposits on reserve as vault cash and deposits at the Fed

What are required reserves? The minimum balance that the Fed requires a bank to hold in vault cash or on deposit with the Fed

What is a required reserve ratio? The percentage of deposits that the Fed requires a bank to hold in vault cash or on deposit with the Fed

What are excess reserves? Potential loan balances held in vault cash or on deposit with the Fed in excess of required reserves

Typical Bank - Balance Sheet 1 Assets Liabilities Required Reserves $5 million Checkable Deposits $50 million Excess Reserves Loans $45 million Total $50 million Total $50 million Note: The Fed requires the bank to keep 10% of its checkable deposits in reserve.

What are total reserves? Total Reserves = required reserves + excess reserves

Required Reserve Ratio of the Fed Required Reserve Ratio Type of Deposit Checkable deposits 3% 0 - $46.5 million 10% Over $46.5 million

Best National Bank - Balance Sheet 2 Assets Liabilities  in M1 Required Reserves Brad Rich Account $10,000 $100,000 Excess Reserves +$90,000 $100,000 Total $100,000 Total Note: The Fed requires the bank to keep 10% of its checkable deposits in reserve.

Best National Bank - Balance Sheet 3 Assets Liabilities  in M1 Required Reserves Brad Rich Account $19,000 $100,000 Excess Reserves Connie Jones Account $81,000 +$90,000 $90,000 Loans +$90,000 Total $190,000 Total $190,000 Note: The Fed requires the bank to keep 10% of its checkable deposits in reserve.

Best National Bank - Balance Sheet 4 Assets Liabilities  in M1 Required Reserves Brad Rich Account $10,000 $100,000 Excess Reserves Connie Jones Account Loans $90,000 Total $100,000 $100,000 Note: The Fed requires the bank to keep 10% of its checkable deposits in reserve.

Yazoo Bank - Balance Sheet 5 Assets Liabilities Required Reserves +$9,000 Better Health Span Account +$90,000 Excess Reserves +$81,000 Total $90,000 Total $90,000 Note: The Fed requires the bank to keep 10% of its checkable deposits in reserve.

Expansion of the Money Supply # Increase in Required Reserves Increase in Excess Reserves Increase in Deposits # Bank 1 $10,000 $90,000 Best Nat’l Bank $100,000 9,000 81,000 2 90,000 Yazoo Nat’l Bank 8,100 72,900 3 Bank A 81,000 Bank B 7,290 65,610 4 72,900 5 Bank C 65,610 6,561 59,049 6 Bank D 59,049 5,905 53,144 7 Bank E 53,144 5,314 47,830 478,297 47,830 430,467 Total all other banks Total increase $1,000,000 $100,000 $900,000

What is the money multiplier? The maximum change in the money supply due to an initial change in the excess reserves banks hold

What is the money multiplier equal to? 1 / required reserve ratio

Initial change in excess reserves Actual money supply change  M1 = ER x m Initial change in excess reserves Money multiplier

Can the multiplier be smaller than indicated? Yes, because of cash leakages and the chance that banks will not use all of their excess reserves to make loans

What would the Fed with inflation? Decrease the money supply What would the Fed do with unemployment? Increase the money supply

What is monetary policy? The Fed’s use of - open market operations  in discount rate  in required reserve ratio

What are open market operations? The buying and selling of government securities by the Federal Reserve System

Federal Reserve System - Balance Sheet 6 Government securities Assets Liabilities Government securities Fed notes $472 $492 Loans to banks Deposits 34 1 Other liabilities and net worth 22 Other assets 75 Total $548 Total $548

Federal Reserve Bank - Balance Sheet 7 Assets Liabilities Initial  in M1 Assets Liabilities Government securities Reserves of Best Nat’l bank +$100,000 +$100,000 +$100,000 Note: The Fed conducted open market operations in order to increase the money supply by purchasing $100,000 in government securities.

Federal Reserve Bank - Balance Sheet 8 Assets Liabilities Initial  in M1 Assets Liabilities Government securities Reserves of Best Nat’l bank -$100,000 -$100,000 -$100,000 Note: The Fed conducted open market operations in order to decrease the money supply by selling $100,000 in government securities.

Fed Fed buys government securities and banks gain reserves Fed sells government securities and banks loose reserves $ $ Banks $ $ Public

What is the discount rate? The interest rate the Fed charges on loans of reserves to banks

What would the Fed do if we have inflation? A higher discount rate discourages banks from borrowing reserves and making loans

What would the Fed do if we have unemployment? A lower discount rate encourages banks to borrow reserves and make more loans

What is the federal funds market? A private market in which banks lend reserves to each other for less than 24 hours

What is the federal funds rate? The interest rate banks charge for overnight loans to other banks

What would the Fed do if we had inflation? A higher federal funds rate discourages banks from borrowing reserves and making loans

What would the Fed do if we had unemployment? A lower federal funds rate encourages banks to borrow reserves and make more loans

What is a required reserve requirement? The Fed determines how much a financial institution must keep in reserve as a percentage of its total assets

What is the required reserve ratio? That percentage the Fed stipulates that financial institutions must keep in reserve to meet its reserve requirement

If the reserve ratio is one tenth, what is the multiplier? 1  1/10 = 10

If the reserve ratio is one twentieth, what is the multiplier? 1  1/20 = 20

What would the fed do if we had inflation? Increase the reserve ratio What would the fed do if we had unemployment? Decrease the reserve ratio

Is changing the reserve ratio a popular monetary tool? No, changing the reserve ratio is considered a heavy-handed approach and is thus infrequently used

What are the shortcomings of monetary policy? Money multiplier inaccuracy Nonbanks Which money definition should the Fed control? Lag effects

Key Concepts

Key Concepts Who were the founders of our modern-day banking? What is fractional reserve banking? What are required reserves? What is a required reserve ratio? What are excess reserves? What are total reserves? What is the money multiplier? What is the money multiplier equal to?

Key Concepts cont. What is monetary policy? What are open market operations? What is the discount rate? What is the federal funds rate? What is a required reserve requirement? What is the required reserve ratio? What are the shortcomings of monetary policy?

Summary

Fractional reserve banking, the basis of banking today, originated with the goldsmiths in the Middle Ages.

Because depository institutions (banks) are not required to keep all their deposits in vault cash or with the Federal Reserve, banks create money by making loans.

Required reserves are the minimum balance that the Fed requires a bank to hold in vault cash or on deposit with the Fed. The percentage of deposits that must be held as required reserves is called the required reserve ratio.

Excess reserves exist when a bank has more reserves than required Excess reserves exist when a bank has more reserves than required. Excess reserves allow a bank to create money by exchanging loans for deposits. Money is reduced when excess reserves are reduced and loans are repaid.

The money multiplier is used to calculate the maximum change (positive or negative) in checkable deposits (money supply) due to a change in excess reserves. As a formula: $ multiplier = 1/required reserve ratio.

Monetary policy is action taken by the Fed to change the money supply Monetary policy is action taken by the Fed to change the money supply. The Fed uses three basic tools: (1) open market operations (2) changes in the discount rate and (3) changes in the required reserve ratio.

Open-market operations are the buying and selling of government securities by the Fed through its trading desk at the New York Federal Reserve Bank.

Buying government securities creates extra bank reserves and loans, thereby expanding the money supply. Selling government securities reduces bank reserves and loans, thereby contracting the money supply.

Fed Fed buys government securities and banks gain reserves Fed sells government securities and banks loose reserves $ $ Banks $ $ Public

Changes in the discount rate occur when the Fed changes the rate of interest it charges on loans of reserves to banks.

Dropping the discount rate makes it easier for banks to borrow reserves from the Fed and expands the money supply.

Raising the discount rate discourages banks from borrowing reserves from the Fed and contracts the money supply.

Changes in the required reserve ratio and the size of the money multiplier are inversely related. Thus, if the Fed decreases the required reserve ratio the money multiplier and money supply increase. If the Fed increases the required reserve ratio the money multiplier and money supply decrease.

Monetary policy limitations include the following: (1) The money multiplier can vary (2) Nonbanks, such as insurance companies, finance companies, and Sears, can offer loans and other financial services not directly under the Fed’s control (3) The Fed might control M1 while the public can shift funds to M2, M3, or another money supply definition (4) Time lags occur.

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