Chapter 4: Developing a Research Plan Ethics Design Hypotheses

Developing a Research Plan: Questions and Hypotheses Basic Designs Ethical Considerations Practical Planning Guidelines

Developing a Research Plan: Quantitative Research Design Descriptive Designs Correlational Group Comparison Qualitative Research Design Case Studies Observational Constant Comparative

Action Research: Planning Stage Choose Topic Review Literature Develop Research Plan an Share Results Reflect On Process Collect Data Analyze

Research Questions and Hypotheses: Qualitative or Quantitative? (see page 61) Research Question: The fundamental question inherent in the research topic under investigation. Purpose: To guide the research study. Quantitative: Focused, one-point questions. Quantitative: Deductive reasoning, statistics.

Research Questions and Hypotheses: Qualitative: Open-ended questions. Posed in a way that can be answered by detailed description, observation. Qualitative: Include 'how' and 'what'. Qualitative: Allow for thorough description of processes and changes. Qualitative: Begin to collect data at any point, revise questions as process continues.

Posing Questions: A Critical Research Skill Is there a relationship between students' academic performance and the number of hours spent studying? What is the nature of the relationship between students' academic performance and the number of hours spent studying?

Posing Questions: A Critical Research Skill To what extent will the integration of technology into the writing process improve students' writing skills? To what extent will the integration of technology into the writing process affect students' writing skills?

Posing Questions: A Critical Research Skill What will improve students' critical-thinking skills? To what degree will problem-based instruction impact students' critical-thinking skills?

Posing Questions: A Critical Research Skill Does God exist? To what extent to people believe that God exists?

Research Topic .... Research Question Leisure activities of elementary teachers and the amount of time spent on them. Becomes... What types of leisure activities do elementary teachers engage in? How much time do they spend on them?

Research Topic .... Research Question Hispanic students' perceptions of factors that make academic success more difficult. Becomes... What are the perceptions held by Hispanic students of factors that make academic success difficult?

Research Topic .... Research Question Effectiveness of a word processing program in helping students review drafts of written stories. Becomes... Is there a difference in the quality of written students drafts on word processors over those who do not? What is the nature of the difference?

Research Topic .... Research Question Effect of reading practice with fifth-grade 'buddies' on the developing reading skills of first-grade students. Becomes... What is the effect of reading practice with fifth-grade 'buddies' on the developing reading skills of first-grade students?

Research Topic .... Research Question Tenth-grade biology students' perceptions of virtual and real animal dissections. Becomes... How to 10th-grade biology students feel about virtual and real animal dissections?

Research Topic .... Research Question Now, it's your turn: Using the article you brought to class today, identify the following: a) The Research Topic b) The Research Question c) The Research Methodology d) The Results of the Research (post on 'Vista' tonight)

Qualitative Research Designs: Broad, holistic, in-depth. "To answer some research questions... We must dig deep to get a complete understanding of the phenomenon we are studying." (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005) Often difficult to identify ahead of time the exact methods needed, becomes less-open ended as data is gathered. Often begin w/ interview & observation: "Ready, fire, aim, fire, aim, fire, aim...."

Qualitative Research: Case Studies Detailed examination of a single setting, single subject, or particular event. Ex: West-End High School, Delta Airlines, G. Bush's' Foreign Policy, Transitioning from Middle to High School. 'Funnel': From wide to narrow. After close, singular study, research decisions are made that shape rest of study.

Qualitative Research: Observational Studies Observation in specific setting. Observer: Researcher as sole observer. Participant-Observer: Observer becomes a trusted person in the setting. Participant: Full member of the community as well as researcher. Ex: Margaret Mead's Work, your work as an action researcher.

Qualitative Research: Participant-Observer Continuum Observer as Participant Participant as Full

Qualitative Research: Constant Comparative Method 1) Begin collecting data. 2) Examine data for key issues, recurrent events, activities: looking for categories. 3) Continue collecting data w/ categories of focus. 4) Begin writing about categories explored, describe, search for new incidents. 5) Work w/ data and emerging 'model' to discover patterns and relationships. 6) Engage in summarizing, coding and writing as analysis focuses on meaningful categories.

Quantitative Research Designs: Descriptive Designs: Descriptive research: describe, make interpretations about current status. Observational Research (Quantitative): focus on single aspect of behavior, or variable (ex: reading comprehension). Information is then 'quantified'. Survey Research: surveying opinions, attitudes, or characteristics, "snapshot". Information is also 'quantified'.

Quantitative Designs: Correlational Designs Correlational Research: to what degree does a statistical relationship exist between two or more variables? No 'causal' connection. Ex: School attendance & socioeconomic background/cultural background. Measures or describes existing conditions. Correlation Coefficients: numerically describe the inter-relationships. Positive / Negative Correlation: +1.00 or -1.00 Strength of relationship: Largest: 1.00 , Smallest: 0.00

Quantitative Research: Group Comparison Designs Comparison Designs: Examines cause-and-effect relationships. Groups exposed to different conditions. Variables are manipulated. Ex: forward or backward History method Rigor and control. Difficult for 'action research. Subgroups: causal-comparative, pre-experimental and quasi-experimental.

Pre-experimental & Quasi-experimental Designs: T= treatment condition O= observation or other type of measure EXP= Experimental group CTL= Control group

Quantitative Research: Pre-experimental Designs Incorporate some aspects of experimental design. Use of only one group. No comparisons. One Shot Case Study: Experimental treatment (i.e.: New Math Method). Post-test administered.(EXP - Treat - Observe). One Group Pre-test-Posttest Design: (EXP - Observe - Treat - Observe)

Quantitative Research: Quasi-experimental Designs Treatment - Observation - Experimental Group (some impact on school setting) No random assignment of participants - not appropriate in school settings. Use of 'pretests' and 'matching' to establish group similarities. Three options: (1) Use another group (2) Rearrange existing groups (3) Take dissimilarity into account Matching: two similar individuals: (T and EXP)

Quantitative Research: Experimental Designs Random Group Selection Control Group Treatment Groups Group Relatively Equal to 'weed' out group differences and look more cleanly at how groups differ after 'treatment'. Ex: Rats w/ saccharine, Rats w/o saccharine.

Matching: Research Questions to Research Design Develop questions to be answered, areas of interest. Review research designs. Think through logistics. Begin to develop RESEARCH PLAN. Informed Consent? Legalities? Signed forms? Issues of confidentiality and anonymity.

Informed Consent: Description of research topic / study. Description of what participation will involve. Participation is VOLUNTARY, no penalty, can be terminated at any time. Guarantee of confidentiality / anonymity. Offer to provide summary of findings. Place for signature and date. (Leedy, Ormrod, 2005).

Developing a Research Plan: Research Question? Research Methodology? Literature Review? Description of Study? Who will be involved? What will be measured? Assignment: Develop a Research Question. (see p. 88 for websites).

Research Errors: Interpretation What is interpretation? What do we bring to the written page? What do we bring to our observations? How reliable is the written word? How credible are the sources? Reasoning Style: (1) Black/white. (2) Lumping of 'conflicting' views. (3) Moral rejection. (4) Defensive. (5) Authority 'worship'. (6) Dogmatic.

Research Errors: Interpretation Common Errors: Quantitative methods are always necessary. Random samples are always necessary. A researcher cannot learn anything from a small sample. If statistical procedures support a finding, the finding is correct and important. Generalizability: My 'short run' study applies to the 'long run'.

Considerations: Bias as a Systemic Error What biases do researchers bring to their studies? What biases will you bring to your study? How do these biases affect the study? Controlling for bias? Declaring bias / researcher position. Researcher's Expectations Hawthorne Effect

Considerations: Bias as a Systemic Error: Biases due to Research Plan Pretests? Surveys? Selection Process? What procedures can you use to compensate for, or eliminate potential biases? Triangulation? Multi-sources? Any undetected biases? Personal issues, experiences, preferences?

References: 1 ) Mertler, C. A. (2012). Improving schools and empowering teachers, 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Sage Publishers, 1 - 34.