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Section 1: Research Methods Section 2: Causation in Science Chapter Preview Section 1: Research Methods Section 2: Causation in Science Section 3: Procedures and Ethics in Research Chapter Menu

Chapter Preview · Section 1 Research Methods (pages 38–49) When sociologists do quantitative research, they generally use either surveys or precollected data. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Field studies are best used when interaction needs to be observed in a natural setting, and when in-depth analysis is needed. The case study is the most popular approach to field research. Chapter Preview 1

Chapter Preview · Section 2 Causation in Science (pages 50–57) Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event. Scientists assume that all events have causes, or determinants. Sociologists work to discover these causes. Three standards must be met before causation can be proved. Chapter Preview 2

Chapter Preview · Section 3 Procedures and Ethics in Research (pages 58–62) The research process is made up of several distinct steps. These steps represent an ideal for scientific research. It is not always necessary or even possible that they always be strictly followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of subjects is sometimes weighed against the value of the knowledge to be gained. Chapter Preview 3

Chapter Preview-End

When sociologists do quantitative research, they generally use either surveys or precollected data. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Qualitative research uses descriptive rather than numerical data. Field studies are best used when interaction needs to be observed in a natural setting, and when in-depth analysis is needed. The case study is the most popular approach to field research. Section 1-Preview

representative sample questionnaire interview closed-ended questions survey population sample representative sample questionnaire interview closed-ended questions open-ended questions secondary analysis field research case study participant observation Section 1-Key Terms

Section 1-Polling Question How difficult would it be to conduct research in the area of sociology? A. Very difficult B. Somewhat difficult C. Not very difficult D. Not difficult at all A B C D Section 1-Polling Question

Doing Research in the Social Sciences Sociologists must conduct research in a real- world setting as opposed to a laboratory. Sociologists rely on quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative research uses numerical data, while qualitative research uses narrative or descriptive data, such as surveys or precollected data. Section 1

Which type of research uses numerical data? A. Quantitative B. Qualitative C. Hypothesis D. Laboratory A B C D Section 1

Survey Research A survey is a research method in which people are asked to answer a series of questions. It is the most widely used method of research in sociology. A population consists of the people with the characteristics a researcher wants to study. Section 1

Survey Research (cont.) Sociologists survey a sample, or a limited number of cases drawn from a larger population. A representative sample has the same basic characteristics as the population and is chosen at random. Section 1

Survey Research (cont.) A questionnaire is a written set of questions that survey participants answer themselves. During an interview a trained interviewer asks questions and records the answers. Section 1

Survey Research (cont.) Closed-ended questions are those that a person answers by choosing from a limited, predetermined set of responses. Open-ended questions ask the person to answer in his or her own words. Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions Closed-ended Survey Research Section 1

Why must sociologist use samples? A. Most populations being studied are too large. B. The cost of studying an entire population would be too much. C. Sociologists don’t have enough time to study an entire population. D. All of the above A B C D Section 1

Secondary Analysis (Precollected Data) Secondary analysis is the method of using precollected information, such as: Government reports Company records Voting lists Prison records Other reports by social scientists Secondary Analysis Section 1

B. The U.S. Department of Commerce C. The U.S. Census Bureau One of the most important sources of precollected data for sociologists is A. The U.S. President B. The U.S. Department of Commerce C. The U.S. Census Bureau D. The U.S. Department of Labor A B C D Section 1

Field Research Field research looks closely at aspects of social life that cannot be measured quantitatively and that are best understood within a natural setting. A case study is a thorough investigation of a single group, incident or community. Section 1

Field Research (cont.) Researchers often become a member of the group being studied, either with or without the group’s knowledge (also known as participant observation). Investigating School Violence and School Funding Summary of Research Methods Section 1

Do you think it is possible to collect valid information about a group that knows you are present ? A. Yes B. No C. Not sure A B C Section 1

Section 1-End

Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event Causation in science is the idea that one event leads to another event. Scientists assume that all events have causes, or determinants. Social events are so complex, however, that many factors may be identified as causes. Three standards must be met before causation can be proved. Section 2-Preview

quantitative variable qualitative variable independent variable causation multiple causation variable quantitative variable qualitative variable independent variable dependent variable intervening variable correlation spurious correlation Section 2-Key Terms

Section-Polling Question Can you think of any newsworthy events, good or bad, that were predictable? A. Yes B. No A B Section-Polling Question

The Nature of Causation Causation is a concept that means that events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways. Sociologists believe that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination, or multiple causation. Section 2

What do you think is the main cause of crime? A. Neglectful parents B. Drugs C. Violence on TV D. Hopeless poverty A B C D Section 2

Variables and Correlations A variable is a characteristic that is subject to change. Quantitative variable—one that can be measured and given a numerical value. Qualitative variable—one that is identified by membership in a category (“either/or” or “yes/no” category). The Wired World Section 2

Variables and Correlations (cont.) An independent variable causes something to occur. A dependent variable results from the change in the independent variable. An intervening variable influences the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable. Section 2

Variables and Correlations (cont.) A correlation is a measure of how things are related to one another. Positive correlation—if both the independent and dependent variable change in the same direction. Negative correlation—if the variables change in the opposite direction. Positive and Negative Correlations Section 2

Whether a variable is dependent or independent can change depending on the situation. A. Always B. Sometimes C. Never D. Not sure A B C D Section 2

Standards for Showing Causation Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated. Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account; the fact that two events are correlated does not mean that one causes the other. Section 2

Standards for Showing Causation (cont.) Spurious correlation is an apparent relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third variable affecting both of the other variables. Standard 3: A change in the independent variable must occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur, or the cause must occur before the effect. A Spurious Correlation Section 2

Which statement best defines a spurious correlation? A. Two variables must be correlated. B. A third variable may affect the other two variables. C. A cause must occur before the effect. D. One variable causes the other to occur. A B C D Section 2

Section 2-End

The research process is made up of several distinct steps The research process is made up of several distinct steps. These steps represent an ideal. It is not always necessary or even possible that they be strictly followed. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants’ privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them. Preserving the rights of subjects must be weighed against the value of the knowledge to be gained. Section 3-Preview

scientific method hypothesis Section 3-Key Terms

Section 3-Polling Question How large a role do you think ethics should play when scientists conduct research? A. Always B. Sometimes C. Never A B C Section 3-Polling Question

Steps for Doing Research The scientific method involves the pursuit of knowledge in a systematic way. Most sociologists follow this method, but not always mechanically. Secondary Analysis: A Model for Research Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.) The steps are as follows: Identify the Problem—the researcher chooses an object or topic to study. Review the Literature—she then conducts a literature search. Formulate Hypotheses—she forms a hypothesis, or testable statement of relationships among well-defined variables. Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.) Develop a Research Design—the researcher then states the procedures she will follow for collecting and analyzing data. Collect Data—this involves either asking people questions, observing behavior, or analyzing existing materials and records. Analyze Data—at this point, the researcher determines if the hypothesis can be supported. Section 3

Steps for Doing Research (cont.) State Findings and Conclusions—finally, she shares her methods and findings with others so that they too can learn. Steps in the Research Process Section 3

How important it for scientists to follow the scientific method? A. Very important B. Not important at all C. Not sure A B C Section 3

Ethics in Social Research The American Sociological Association has published guidelines for conducting research. Conducting ethical research means: Showing objectivity Using superior research standards Reporting findings and methods truthfully Protecting the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, and freedom of research subjects Section 3

Do you agree that the matter of ethics in conducting sociology research is difficult? A. Yes B. No C. Not sure D. Sometimes A B C D Section 3

Section 3-End

Secondary Analysis: A Model for Research Sources: (left) National Vital Statistics Reports, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005. (right) U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–2005. Research

The Wired World World View Source: United Nations Development Programme, 2004. World View

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Figure 2.5A

Figure 2.5B

Positive and Negative Correlations Figure 2.8

A Spurious Correlation Figure 2.9

Steps in the Research Process Figure 2.10

Sociology Chapter Transparencies Wheel of Science How Variables Are Related Mode, Mean, and Median of Salaries Transparency Menu

Transparency 1

Transparency 2

Transparency 3

survey research method in which people respond to questions Vocab 1

population a group of people with certain specified characteristics Vocab 2

sample a group of people that represents a larger population Vocab 3

representative sample a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole Vocab 4

questionnaire a written set of questions to be answered by a research participant Vocab 5

interview a survey method in which a trained researcher asks questions and records the answers Vocab 6

closed-ended questions questions a person must answer by choosing from a limited, predetermined set or responses Vocab 7

open-ended questions questions a person is to answer in his or her own words Vocab 8

secondary analysis using precollected information for data collection and research purposes Vocab 9

field research research that takes place in a natural (nonlaboratory) setting Vocab 10

case study intensive study of a single group, incident, or community Vocab 11

participant observation a case study where the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied Vocab 12

causation the belief that events occur in predictable ways and that one event leads to another Vocab 13

multiple causation the belief that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination Vocab 14

variable a characteristic that is subject to change Vocab 15

quantitative variable a characteristic that can be measured numerically Vocab 16

qualitative variable a characteristic that is defined by its presence or absence in a category Vocab 17

independent variable a characteristic that causes something to occur Vocab 18

dependent variable a characteristic that reflects a change Vocab 19

intervening variable a variable that changes the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable Vocab 20

correlation a measure of the relationship between two variables Vocab 21

spurious correlation a relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third factor Vocab 22

scientific method the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of a hypotheses Vocab 23

hypothesis testable statement of relationships among variables Vocab 24

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