5 Learning

Learning Objectives 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen? 5.2 What causes classically conditioned responses to change? 5.3 What did Watson's "Little Albert" experiment show? 5.4 What did Rescorla demonstrate about classical conditioning? 5.5 How do biological predispositions affect classical conditioning?

Learning Objectives 5.6 What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life? 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior? 5.8 How do shaping, generalization, and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning? 5.9 How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior? 5.10 What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement?

Learning Objectives 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior? 5.12 How do escape and avoidance learning occur? 5.13 What are some applications of operant conditioning? 5.14 How does insight affect learning? 5.15 What did Tolman discover about the necessity of reinforcement? 5.16 How do we learn by observing others? 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Overview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive Learning 5

Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude acquired through experience cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation

Classical Conditioning LO 5.1 A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another stimulus any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds Classical conditioning was an accidental discovery by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Figure 5.1 The Experimental Apparatus Used in Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Studies In Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies, the dog was restrained in a harness in the cubicle and isolated from all distractions. An experimenter observed the dog through a one-way mirror and, by remote control, presented the dog with food and other conditioning stimuli. A tube carried the saliva from the dog’s mouth to a container where it was measured. 8

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) is presented shortly before an unconditioned stimulus (food). Naturally elicits an unconditioned response (salivation) After repeated pairings, the conditioned stimulus alone (the tone) comes to elicit the conditioned response (salivation). 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Figure 5.2 Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response A neutral stimulus (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food). After many pairings, the neutral stimulus (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation. Classical conditioning has occurred. 10

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits unconditioned response without learning e.g., food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eye 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Response (UR) response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without learning e.g., salivation, startle, contraction of pupil, eyeblink 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS) neutral stimulus After repeated pairing with US, the stimulus becomes associated with it. elicits a conditioned response example: a tone 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning Conditioned Response (CR) learned response elicited by CS in response to, e.g., a tone Higher-Order Conditioning Conditioned stimuli are linked to form a series of signals. 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Changing Conditioned Responses LO 5.2 Extinction weakening and disappearance of CR as a result of repeated presentation of CS without US Spontaneous Recovery reappearance of extinguished CR when organism is exposed to CS following rest period 5.2 What causes classically conditioned responses to change?

Figure 5.3 Extinction of a Classically Conditioned Response When a classically conditioned stimulus (a tone) was presented in a series of trials without the unconditioned stimulus (food), Pavlov’s dogs salivated less and less until there was virtually no salivation. But after a 20-minute rest, one sound of the tone caused the conditioned response to reappear in a weakened form (producing only a small amount of salivation), a phenomenon Pavlov called spontaneous recovery. Source: Data from Pavlov (1927/1960), p. 58. 16

Changing Conditioned Responses LO 5.2 Generalization tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS Discrimination learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli CR occurs only in response to the original CS, not to similar stimuli. 5.2 What causes classically conditioned responses to change?

Figure 5.4 Generalization of a Conditioned Response Pavlov attached small vibrators to different parts of a dog’s body. After conditioning salivation to stimulation of the dog’s thigh, he stimulated other parts of the dog’s body. Due to generalization, the salivation also occurred when other body parts were stimulated. But the farther away from the thigh the stimulus was applied, the weaker the salivation response. Source: From Pavlov (1927/1960). 18

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning LO 5.3 Watson and Rayner (1920) "Little Albert" Study A child was classically conditioned to fear a rat. Conditioned fears persist and modify personality throughout life. Mary Cover Jones (1924) later used classical conditioning to remove fears in another child. 5.3 What did Watson's "Little Albert" experiment show?

Figure 5.5 The Conditioned Fear Response Little Albert’s fear of a white rat was a conditioned response that was generalized to other stimuli, including a rabbit and, to a lesser extent, a Santa Claus mask. Source: Archives of the History of American Psychology—The University of Akron. 20

The Cognitive Perspective LO 5.4 Pavlov and Watson A critical element of classical conditioning is the repeated pairing of CS and US. Robert Rescorla A critical element is whether the CS provides information that enables the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the US. 5.4 What did Rescorla demonstrate about classical conditioning?

Biological Predispositions Genetically programmed tendencies to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli Martin Seligman (1972): most common fears "are related to the survival of the human species through the long course of evolution" 5.5 How do biological predispositions affect classical conditioning?

Biological Predispositions Taste Aversion the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort biologically adaptive for survival 5.5 How do biological predispositions affect classical conditioning?

Biological Predispositions: Garcia and Koelling (1966) Exposed rats to 3-way conditioned stimulus: bright light, clicking noise, flavored water One group was exposed to US producing nausea and vomiting several hours after exposure. 5.5 How do biological predispositions affect classical conditioning?

Biological Predispositions: Garcia and Koelling (1966) Another group's US was immediate electric shocks to the feet. Rats formed an association between nausea and flavored water ingested several hours earlier. contradicted the principle that CS must be presented shortly before the US Animals are biologically predisposed to make associations. 5.5 How do biological predispositions affect classical conditioning?

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life LO 5.6 Why can diet soda make people hungry? The sweet taste of soda becomes a CS. elicits insulin increase (UR) leads to feelings of hunger The pancreas pumps out insulin (lowers blood sugar) in response to any sweet taste such as diet soda. 5.6 What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life LO 5.6 Why can diet soda make people hungry? Without real sugar, insulin causes blood sugar to drop below normal. Insulin drop causes the body to signal to the brain to eat. 5.6 What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike Skinner and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike) Consequence response determines the tendency to respond in the same way in the future. strengthened or weakened Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequences. Law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning. 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Operant Conditioning The consequences of behavior are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or shape a new one. Operant voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Reinforcer follows a response strengthens it or increases the probability that it will occur 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

The Process of Operant Conditioning LO 5.8 Shaping learning in small steps rather than all at once rewarding successive approximations of desired response used to condition complex behaviors in people and other animals 5.8 How do shaping, generalization, and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning?

The Process of Operant Conditioning LO 5.8 Skinner box A soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject used in operant conditioning experiments. 5.8 How do shaping, generalization, and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning?

The Process of Operant Conditioning LO 5.8 Successive Approximations A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response. Extinction weakening and eventual disappearance of a response as a result of withholding reinforcement 5.8 How do shaping, generalization, and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning? 33

The Process of Operant Conditioning LO 5.8 Generalization tendency to make a learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced Discriminative Stimulus stimulus that signals whether a response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished 5.8 How do shaping, generalization, and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning?

Reinforcement Reinforcement LO 5.9 Reinforcement Any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated. 5.9 How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior?

Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement LO 5.9 Positive Reinforcement a pleasant or desirable consequence after response increases the probability that the response will be repeated 5.9 How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior? 36

Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement LO 5.9 Negative Reinforcement termination of an unpleasant condition after a response increases the probability that the response will be repeated 5.9 How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior? 37

Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer LO 5.9 Primary Reinforcer a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need and does not depend on learning Secondary Reinforcer a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers 5.9 How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior?

Schedules of Reinforcement LO 5.10 Schedule of Reinforcement A systematic process for administering reinforcement. 5.10 What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement?

Schedules of Reinforcement LO 5.10 Fixed-Ratio (FR) The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses. Variable-Ratio (VR) The reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses. 5.10 What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement? 40

Schedules of Reinforcement LO 5.10 Fixed-Interval (FI) The reinforcer is given in response to the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed. Variable-Interval (VI) The reinforcer is given after first correct response following a varying period of time. 5.10 What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement? 41

Figure 5.6 Four Types of Reinforcement Schedules Skinner’s research revealed distinctive response patterns for four reinforcement schedules (the reinforcers are indicated by the diagonal marks). The ratio schedules, based on the number of responses, yielded a higher response rate than the interval schedules, which are based on the amount of time elapsed between reinforcers. 42

Reinforcement Schedules Compared 43

Punishment LO 5.11 Removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus Lowers the probability of a response 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment Positive Punishment Negative Punishment LO 5.11 Positive Punishment decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence consequence is usually negative Negative Punishment decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence loss of something desirable 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

TABLE 5.1 The Effects of Reinforcement and Punishment 46

The Disadvantages of Punishment LO 5.11 Does not extinguish undesirable behavior suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent is present Indicates that behavior is unacceptable but does not help to develop more appropriate behavior 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

The Disadvantages of Punishment LO 5.11 The punished often become fearful and feel angry toward the punisher. Frequently leads to aggression 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

Alternatives to Punishment LO 5.11 Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish it. not giving in to a child's demands during a tantrum ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate behaviors 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

Alternatives to Punishment LO 5.11 Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewarding. 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

Making Punishment More Effective LO 5.11 Most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible Should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior To be effective, must be applied consistently 5.11 How does punishment affect behavior?

Escape and Avoidance Learning LO 5.12 Escape Learning performing a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive event Avoidance Learning avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequence 5.12 How do escape and avoidance learning occur?

Escape and Avoidance Learning LO 5.12 Avoidance Learning can be adaptive avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has been drinking Much avoidance learning is maladaptive. avoiding situations because of phobias 5.12 How do escape and avoidance learning occur?

Escape and Avoidance Learning LO 5.12 Learned Helplessness exception to learning escape or avoidance behaviors passive resignation to aversive situation due to repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable events 5.12 How do escape and avoidance learning occur?

Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 5.13 Biofeedback information about internal biological states Sensors monitor slight changes in internal responses. amplify and convert into visual or auditory signals 5.13 What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 5.13 Biofeedback gives precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that people can learn to exercise control over them used to control migraine headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety, epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions, neuromuscular disorders, etc. 5.13 What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 5.13 Behavior Modification changing behavior based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with autism 5.13 What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Applications of Operant Conditioning LO 5.13 Token Economy motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens 5.13 What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared 59

Cognitive Learning Cognitive Processes Watson and Skinner LO 5.14 Cognitive Processes mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations Watson and Skinner believed that learning could be explained without reference to internal mental processes 5.14 How does insight affect learning?

Cognitive Learning LO 5.14 Today, psychologists stress the role of mental processes. Important Researchers: Kohler, Tolman, Bandura 5.14 How does insight affect learning?

Learning by Insight Insight LO 5.14 Insight sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem makes solution apparent 5.14 How does insight affect learning?

Learning by Insight Köhler studies with chimpanzees LO 5.14 Köhler studies with chimpanzees Chimpanzees appeared to give up in attempts to get bananas. suddenly realized relationship Behavior seemed to be based on insight, not trial-and-error learning. 5.14 How does insight affect learning?

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps LO 5.15 Tolman Learning can take place without reinforcement. differentiated between learning and performance Latent Learning learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement 5.15 What did Tolman discover about the necessity of reinforcement?

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps LO 5.15 Latent Learning not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so Cognitive Map mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze Tolman's mice formed a cognitive map, but did not demonstrate knowledge until rewarded. 5.15 What did Tolman discover about the necessity of reinforcement?

Figure 5.7 Latent Learning Rats in Group 1 were rewarded every day for running the maze correctly, while rats in Group 2 were never rewarded. Group 3 rats were rewarded only on the 11th day and thereafter outperformed the rats in Group 1. The rats had “learned” the maze but were not motivated to perform until rewarded, demonstrating that latent learning had occurred. Source: From Tolman & Honzik (1930). 66

Observational Learning LO 5.16 Albert Bandura (1963, 1969, 1977,1986) Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation The model is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated. effectiveness of model related to status, competence, and power 5.16 How do we learn by observing others?

Observational Learning LO 5.16 Four processes determine whether observational learning is occurring. Attention Retention Reproduction Reinforcement 5.16 How do we learn by observing others?

Observational Learning LO 5.16 Modeling Effect learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses Facilitation Effect exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation 5.16 How do we learn by observing others?

Observational Learning LO 5.16 Inhibitory Effect suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior Disinhibitory Effect displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment 5.16 How do we learn by observing others?

Cognitive Learning 71

Learning from Media: Effects of the Multitasking Environment LO 5.17 Many college students work on assignments in a split-screen format. one part of the screen devoted to work and another to a game The research is too preliminary to support definitive conclusions. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Effects of the Multitasking Environment LO 5.17 More time spent multitasking may leave a subject less capable of managing thought processes when not multitasking. May reduce ability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Television and Other Entertainment Media LO 5.17 "Bobo Doll" Studies (Bandura, 1961) Children imitate aggressive behavior of an adult model seen on film. Recent Research Individuals who watch the most violence as children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Television and Other Entertainment Media LO 5.17 Recent Research brain imaging: patterns of neural activation develop by watching violent media Children also imitate prosocial behavior. Media may teach children not to engage in aggressive acts. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Electronic Games LO 5.17 Recent research suggests that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images. Games can also teach positive messages and skills. Games often played in male peer groups may be essential for social development. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Electronic Games LO 5.17 Games can also teach positive messages and skills. can teach safe driving skills can enhance women's spatial cognitive skills 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Figure 5.8 “Gamers” in Four Age Groups Researchers at the Pew Internet & American Life Project track all kinds of media use among children and adults in the United States. One of their findings is that younger adults are more likely to play video games at least occasionally than those who are older. However, older adults who play are more likely to do so every day than younger adults are. Source: Data from Lenhart, A., Jones, S., & Macgill, A. (2008). 78

Learning from Media: The Internet LO 5.17 Educators should not assume that Internet-based instruction is more effective than conventional approaches (Mayer, 2010). Physical manipulations of the computer distracts online readers. hinders ability to comprehend and remember what they are reading 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: The Internet LO 5.17 Younger children using Web-based materials are more likely to be distracted by ads than older children. Conventional classroom lectures and textbooks are just as useful for learning complex material as multimedia presentations. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?