Individual Differences Chapter 3 Individual Differences And Assessment

Module 3.1: Introduction to Individual Differences Background 1890 – Cattell & concept of “mental test” Differential psychology Psychometrics World War I & the intelligence test “g” or general mental ability

Varieties of Individual Differences Cognitive ability & the g-ocentric model Physical ability Personality Interests Knowledge Emotion Monica Lau/Getty Images

Figure 3.1: Link b/w Attributes & Behavior in Organizations The Link between Attributes and Behavior in Organizations Source: K. R. Murphy (1996a).

Fundamental Assumptions in Applying Individual Differences Model Adults have variety of attributes that are relatively stable over a period of time People differ with respect to those attributes Relative differences among people on these attributes remain even after training Different jobs require different attributes These attributes can be measured

Module 3.2: Human Attributes Taxonomy of abilities Fleishman’s taxonomy of 52 abilities Cognitive abilities Physical abilities Perceptual-motor abilities

Cognitive Abilities Intelligence as “g” Involves ability to reason, plan, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas, & learn from experience Chad Baker/Getty Images

Cognitive Abilities Is “g” important at work? Yes ↑ job complexity = ↑ predictive value of general intelligence tests

Carroll’s Hierarchical Model Figure 3.2 Carroll’s Hierarchical Model Source: Carroll (1993).

A Model of Physical Abilities Figure 3.3: A Model of Physical Abilities (Guion, 1998)

Sensory Abilities Vision Touch Taste Smell Hearing Kinesthetic feedback Jeff Maloney/Getty Images

Psychomotor Abilities Also called sensorimotor or motor abilities Fleishman’s psychomotor abilities Arm-hand steadiness Manual dexterity Finger dexterity Control precision Response orientation Rate control Reaction time Wrist-finger speed

Personality & Interests Big Five Personality Model Conscientiousness Agreeableness Emotional stability Extraversion Openness to experience

Practical Issues Associated with Personality Measures Faking Self-presentation Self-efficacy Social desirability Does faking really matter?

Vocational Interests Expressions of liking about environments, activities Holland’s vocational typology Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Holland’s Vocational Typology Figure 3.4 Interest Types Underlying the Hexagonal Representation of Holland’s Vocational Typology Source: Hogan & Blake (1996).

Additional Proposed Individual Differences Skills Practiced acts Technical & non-technical Knowledge Collection of discrete but related facts & information about a particular domain Tacit knowledge → “street smarts” Procedural knowledge → knowing “how” Declarative knowledge → knowing “that”

Additional Proposed Individual Differences (cont'd) Competencies Sets of behaviors instrumental in accomplishing various activities Combination of individual difference characteristics Emotional intelligence Awareness of our own & others’ emotions Controversial construct

Module 3.3: Foundations of Assessment Past & present of testing 1890 – Cattell & “mental test” WWI: Over million soldiers tested During WWII: full employment After WWII: little control over testing 1960s – constraints on testing Criticism by social observers Civil Rights Act of 1964

What is a Test? Objective & standardized procedure for measuring a psychological construct using a sample of behavior Attributes to be assessed CONTENT Ways to assess attributes PROCESS

Two Attributes Measured Using Two Different Procedures Figure 3.5 Two Attributes Measured Using Two Different Procedures

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Tests (cont'd) What is the meaning of a test score? Norming & norm groups used to interpret & give meaning to a score Test users & test interpretation Importance of training test administrators to correctly understand & interpret results Test battery Collection of tests assessing variety of different attributes Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Administrative Test Categories Speed vs. power tests Speed tests have rigid & demanding time limits Provide greater variability among candidates Issue of relevance to job May increase the risk of legal challenges Power tests have no rigid time limits Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Speed Test The game show “Jeopardy” is an example of a speed test Picture 3.7

Administrative Test Categories (cont'd) Group vs. individual tests Individual tests useful in assessing a candidate’s style of problem solving Group testing is valuable in reducing costs Paper & pencil vs. performance tests Performance tests assess skill in performing tasks & knowledge of how to carry out actions Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Administrative Test Categories (cont'd) Where to find tests Textbooks Mental Measurements Yearbook (Buros Institute) Tests In Print (Buros Institute) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Testing & Culture Bias Situation in which a given test results in statistical errors of prediction for a subgroup Fairness Value judgment about actions or decisions based on test scores Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Testing & Culture (cont'd) System in which individuals share meanings & common ways of viewing events & objects Influence of culture & subculture on test scores Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Module 3.4: Assessment Procedures Content vs. process Important distinction for showing validity Validity depends more on content of gathered information Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Procedures for assessing abilities Cognitive ability tests Allow individuals to demonstrate what they know, perceive, remember, understand, or can work mentally

Cognitive Ability Tests (cont'd) Tests that produce a single score Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) Tests of specific abilities Bennett Test of Mechanical Comprehension

Cognitive Ability Tests (cont'd) Cognitive test batteries General Aptitude Test Battery Knowledge tests Tomi/PhotoLink/Getty Images

Tests of Physical Abilities Physical ability tests Psychomotor abilities Coordination, dexterity, reaction time

Figure 3.8: Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test

Personality Screen-out tests → Identify psychopathology Generally used for positions of public trust May only be administered after offer of employment Screen-in tests → Identify normal personality May be administered as pre-employment tests e.g., Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)

Emotional intelligence Personality (cont'd) Emotional intelligence Controversial construct: Little agreement on definition or how to measure it Interests & values Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIB) Candidate’s score compared to various occupational norm groups

Individual Assessment Only one candidate (or very few) is assessed on many different attributes Likely to include ability & personality tests, personal history statement, & interviews May include simulation exercises Criticisms of individual assessment Issues of validity, reliability, & ethics

Interviews Structured interview Situational interview Unstructured interview Tend to cover job knowledge, abilities, skills, personality, & person-org. fit

Potential Influences on Employment Interviews Nature of information Placement of information Presence of interviewer stereotypes Interviewer knowledge of job Method used by interviewer to combine information Nonverbal behavior of candidate Attitudinal/racial/gender similarity of candidate & interviewer Quality of competing candidates Interviewer experience Applicant physical appearance Attention to factual detail by interviewer Extent to which interview is structured Note taking by interviewer Use of same interviewer(s) for all candidates

Assessment Centers Collection of procedures for evaluation Typical characteristics Assessment done in groups Assessment done by groups Multiple methods of assessment employed Assessment centers have “feel” of relevance

Work Sample Tests Measure job skills by taking samples of behavior under realistic job-like conditions Examples: Rudder control test for pilots Speech interview for foreign student

Situational Judgment Tests Present candidate with written scenario, then ask candidate to choose best response from series of alternatives Important characteristics: Job-related Well-accepted by test takers Reduced adverse impact compared to other devices

Framework for Relating Multidimensional Nature of SJT to KSAOs and Performance Figure 3.11

Module 5: Special Topics in Assessment Incremental validity Value in terms of increased validity of adding a particular predictor to an existing selection system

Biographical Data Biodata Ecology model Includes type of information collected on an application blank e.g., previous jobs, education, & special training Ecology model Events constituting person’s history represent choices made by individual to interact with his/her environment

Biographical Data (cont'd) Distinguishing characteristics of biodata Historical External Objective Discrete Control Relevant & noninvasive

Grades & Letters of Recommendation May be able to predict job offers, but not job success Little serious research on validity & fairness of these devices

Controversial Assessment Practices Graphology Assumes traits can be assessed from various characteristics of a person’s handwriting Polygraph Machine that measures person’s physiological reactions & signals deception

The Polygraph Physiological responses assessed by the polygraph Associated by the Polygraph

Other Assessment Techniques Drug & alcohol testing Issues with acceptance by employees & prospective employees Legal Issues Drug Free Workplace Act Integrity testing Overt integrity test Personality based integrity test TRBfoto/Getty Images

Computer-Based Assessment Are we measuring same thing as we are with paper & pencil test or interview? Yes AND No Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) Based on preliminary routing test; allows for test to be “tailored” to test-taker’s approximate level of ability

Routing Test in Computer Adaptive Testing Figure 3.13.