Classical Literary Criticism In the Name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate, and Praise be to God! Classical Literary Criticism Dr Gehan M. Anwar Deeb Lecturer of English Literature & Translation October 6 University

Classical Period Ancient Greece Political & Intellectual Background By the end of this lecture, you are expected to learn about: Historical & Intellectual Context in the Classical Period Plato’s Early Works The Apology (Plato & Socrates) Plato’s Later Works The Republic: The Allegory of the Cave Plato’s Objection to Art (Poetry). What are his objections? What is his Theory of Mimesis? What is his Theory of Forms?

From where does the word “criticism” derive? Classical Literary Criticism From where does the word “criticism” derive? Our English word “criticism” derives from the ancient Greek term krites, meaning to “judge.”

What does literary criticism mean? Evaluation, Analysis, Description, or Interpretation of a literary work.

Classics Today we consider old movies and songs as classics; they are sung, watched and enjoyed for ever.

Classical- referring to the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome.

Classical Works & Critics Plato and Aristotle were the great masters of the classical criticism.

PLATO (c. 429-347 BC)

During his time: • There was political instability. • Education was in sorry state. Homer was part of studies – His epics were misinterpreted. The Illiad • Women were regarded inferior human beings – slavery was wide spread. • Best time of Greek literature was over – corruption and degeneration in literature. • Confusion prevailed in all spheres of life – intellect, moral, political and education. The poets added fuel to the fire. Plato regarded them as breeders of falsehood, and poetry as mother of lies.

Plato’s Historical Context The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC): An ancient Greek war fought by Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. The war lasted 27 years, The result of the war was: Sparta defeated Athens. The end of Athenian maritime empire.

Who was Plato? (429-347 BC) Philosopher, thinker and critic student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle. Lived 24 years during the Peloponnesian War, a conflict that affected many areas of his thought.

Plato’s Earlier Works Plato’s earliest works ……… Socrates. We know about Socrates from Plato’s writings. The Apology: A series of dialogues were in none of which Plato appears as a speaking character. Socrates is the principal speaker in these dialogues that are still appreciated for their beauty and wisdom. Socrates taught by asking questions, a technique known as the Socratic method, or Socratic dialogue.

Plato, Socrates and the Dialogue Socrates wanted people to question their beliefs and look for knowledge. Socrates convinces the city that his philosophy is not corrupting, but holy and virtuous. He was arrested and condemned to death for corrupting the young and neglecting the gods. After Socrates’ execution, Plato left Athens in disgust and travelled widely. Plato founded the “Academy” as the first known university or school of philosophy in Athens, and where Aristotle was one of his students. Plato and Aristotle followed Socrates in their pursuit for knowledge and deeper understanding.

Plato’s Works - Continued Plato’s middle to later works are generally regarded as providing Plato’s own philosophy. His most famous work was The Republic, which featured The Allegory of the Cave Tension City (polis) Philosopher (mad) The Republic Harmony Socrates was sentenced to death by the city. The philosopher is likely to be perceived as mad not a savior.

The Cave Analogy, The Allegory of the Cave From the Republic, Book VII. What is the Story About? [Socrates:]  … let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened: --Behold! Human beings living in a underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets. [Glaucon:]  I see.

The Allegory of the Cave - From the Republic, Book VII. The Story – Continued. And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent. You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners. Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the opposite wall of the cave? True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads?

The Allegory of the Cave - From the Republic, Book VII. The Story – Continued. And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows? Yes, he said. And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually before them? … No question, he replied. To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images. That is certain.

The Allegory of the Cave How does Plato’s thought experiment work? Sketch your own interpretation of the cave In Drawing, or With perspective

In The Allegory of the Cave: Plato likens people to prisoners chained in a cave, unable to turn their heads. All they can see is the wall of the cave. Behind them burns a fire. Between the fire and the prisoners there is a parapet, along which puppeteers can walk. The puppeteers, who are behind the prisoners, hold up puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave. The prisoners are unable to see these puppets, the real objects, that pass behind them. What the prisoners see and hear are shadows and echoes cast by objects that they do not see.

YouTube - The Allegory of the Cave http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYKNAdbhQ-w&feature=related YouTube - The Allegory of the Cave

Symbolism Within the Story Inside the Cave = The Physical World Objects casting shadows = Objects Shadows on the wall = Images What do the symbols mean? Inside the cave, the prisoners mistake appearance for reality. They believe that the images they are seeing on the wall are actually real, they do not know that there are objects making these images. If a prisoner says “That’s a book” he thinks that he is talking about a “book,” when really he is talking of a shadow. To see it, he would have to turn his head around.

Plato’s point: Plato asks us to imagine… …that men believe the shadows are real. Suppose now that one of the men escaped, and got out of the cave, and saw what real people looked like, and real trees and grass. If he went back to the cave and told the other men what he had seen, would they believe him, or would they think he was crazy? When the prisoners are released, they can turn their heads and see the real objects. Then they realize their error. Plato says that we are like those men sitting in the cave: we think we understand the real world, but because we are trapped in the physical world, we can see only the shadows on the wall.

In the Cave: what are the “shadows”? Plato’s theory of images images = what “appears” (our world) images = Art In the Cave: what are the “shadows”? a) what we see in the world around us b) what appears in art

The Philosopher’s Task: Get out of the Cave of appearances/images, “see” the world of Forms, then go back into the Cave… His goal is to help us understand the real world better, by finding ways to predict it even without being able to see it.

Solution: Find/Make another reality Since what we thought was “Real” is only appearance… Therefore, we should think of the Ideal/the “Forms” which is the new Real. (A standard form for imitation) Forms = what “is” or “what ought to be” (ideal world) 2 Worlds????

Plato II From Plato we get the Theory of Forms, according to which: the world we know through the senses is only an imitation of the pure, eternal, and unchanging world of the Forms. Beauty is an example of Forms or Ideals. The beauty of a Flower is an imperfect imitation of Beauty itself.

Plato’s Forms The world of Forms is rational and unchanging; The world of physical appearances is irrational and changeable, and it succeeds in imitating the Forms. The mind or soul belongs to the ideal world; the body and its passions to the physical world. The best human life is one that strives to imitate the Forms as closely as possible. That life is the life of the mind, the life of the philosopher

Art and the Forms A carpenter makes a bed for use in accordance with the form or idea of bed. A carpenter’s bed is a copy of the form/ideal of bed. He does not make the form itself. Plato calls an instance of a form or universal an ‘imitation’ of that form in being a copy of the original.

THE FORM BED BEDS: Art and the Forms Vincent Van Gogh’s painting of his bed, excerpted from his painting Bedroom at Arles, 1888. For Plato, a painting of a bed represents an imitation of an imitation. A carpenter’s bed. For Plato, such a bed is an imitation of the form bed.

Plato’s Theory of Imitation (Mimesis) For Plato: Art (poetry, drama, music, painting, dance) is an imitation of an imitation –and hence takes us away from, not closer to, the truth. It is through philosophy that we know the truth, not art or poetry. Art is concerned with appearance, not truth………………… not even an imitation of things as they are, but only as they appear. Whereas philosophy is concerned with the truth, “The real artist . . . would be interested in realities, and not in imitations.”

Therefore, What is meant by Plato’s theory of imitation? He states in the Republic that art imitates physical things, which in turn imitates the Forms. Art is always a copy of a copy, takes us away from the truth and toward illusion. Art is dangerous. Plato says: The imitator or maker of the image knows nothing of true existence; he knows appearance only ….

In your opinion, which one does Plato favor more: the poet or the carpenter? Why? Plato condemns all poets: POETS SHOULD BE BANISHED except for CELEBRATING THE VICTORS The poet should be banished/removed from reality, because he is like the painter who does not know the reality of the chair. While the carpenter who manufactures this chair knows its reality. POETS ARE MERELY IMITATING AN IMITATION (WRITING ABOUT ANY OBJECT IN THE MATERIAL WORLD) Poets = Imitators of mere shadows Poetic Art = COPY of a COPY Poets = Irrational, Untrustworthy, Damned

The Mimetic Theory of Art: “Art is essentially an imitation of Nature Plato is the first critic who originates the idea of imitation in literary criticism. For him, art is at best: (1) useless and (2) potentially dangerous. And so the chief reasons for objecting poets were:

Plato’s View: Art is Essentially Mimesis Art was useless: It serves no useful purpose in society. As an "Imitation of Nature" it added no knowledge or intellectual value. Art was potentially dangerous: Art was essentially deceptive. Art was mainly concerned with sensual pleasure. Art was psychologically de-stabilizing (for the individual). Art leads to immorality. Art was politically dangerous (threat to the common good)

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) Choose the right option: Plato wrote Socrates’ thoughts in the form of: a. Dialogues b. Paragraphs c. Poetry d. Story telling Say whether the following statement is true or false: According to Plato, poetry is better than philosophy. a. True b. False c. Cannot say

• Study Questions 1. Compare between the world of appearances and the world of forms according to Plato. 2. Why did Plato feel literature and art to be a dangerous social and political force? 3. Discuss the Plato’s Allegory of the Cave and its symbolism. 4. Define Plato’s theory of Mimesis?