Soil Basics: (Or The World Under Our Feet) This version includes information on soil organisms and the food web and is recommended for high grade levels. This presentation can be used to introduce the soil investigation, or to tie up what the students have discovered. The slides are meant for discussion by students. Score Four: Students, Schools, Streams, and The Bay Rebecca Wolf and Nguyen Le Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin

Soil: The Foundation For a Plant’s Success Soil provides plants with: Nutrients Minerals Water Oxygen

It’s Not Just Dirt Soil consists of: Mineral particles – sand, silt, or clay. Pore Spaces between mineral particles. Organic matter – decomposing plants, animal matter and droppings. Small organisms – worms and insects and microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. Examples of fungi familiar to students include mushrooms and toadstools. The part we see is considered the fruiting body of an extensive system of underground roots.

Soil: It’s a Mix The three minerals that comprise soil are: Sand Silt Clay.

More On Minerals Clay particles are flat like paper. These minerals are classified by size. You can see… Sand with your eye or magnifying glass. Silt with microscopes. Clay with electron microscopes. Clay particles are flat like paper. If sand particles were the size of a basketball, clay particles would be the size of a period at the end of a sentence. A million grains of clay will fit in the space occupied by one average grain of sand. Electron microscope image of clay (source: http://www.drainchem.com.au/septic_seep_3.html). Well-sorted clay particles are sometimes compared to a deck of cards or stack of newspapers to help people understand their structure.

How soil feels to the touch tells us what it is! The minerals in a soil affects how it feels to the touch. This is called its soil texture. The particles feel differently, because of their different sizes and structures. We can tell the general composition of soil from its texture. You will do this in a Soil Texture Lab. Note that grains of sand are not all the same size. Think about the different types of sand on beaches. Sandy Point State Park feels coarse. The sand at Ocean City feels finer or softer. Why? Teachers, this is a good place to do the soil texture exercise, if you want to break up this presentation. How would you expect sand to feel in comparison to clay?

Pore Space – where lots of action takes place. The spaces between individual soil particles are called pore spaces. Pore spaces house water, oxygen, and microorganisms. Plant roots grow into and make pore spaces. Pore spaces also exist between lumps of soil, called aggregates, and in bedrock. This presentation focuses on particles to introduce the concept.

Pore Space Sand Silt Different types of minerals have different sized pore spaces. Which type of mineral has the largest pore spaces? How about the smallest? Sand has the largest pore spaces, clay has minute pore spaces. Picture piles of basketballs versus piles of cards or newspapers. Clay

Porosity and Permeability – related, but different Porosity – Soil scientists define porosity as the volume of pores for a given amount of soil. Which mineral is most porous (has the greatest volume of pores for the same amount)? But which is most permeable? (Which will rain pass through the fastest? TEACHERS: Porosity and permeability are the key physical properties that determine the ability of a body sediment to store and transmit water, but the understanding of porosity and permeability is more complicated that it first seems, particularly since soil scientists and geologists define the term porosity differently than general on-line dictionaries. To more fully delve into this concept with high school students, see Porosity and Permeability, by Anthony H. Fleming, Indiana Geological Survey: https://igs.indiana.edu/MarionCounty/PoroAndPerme.cfm . Below are key concepts from this article. “Porosity is defined as the volume of open spaces, or pores, between the solid mineral components that make up a rock or unconsolidated sediment, expressed as a percentage. … All unconsolidated sediments possess a significant volume of porosity, which ranges from 25 to 35 percent in well-sorted sand and gravel to as much as 60 percent in some silts and clays. Porosity is inversely proportional to grain size, with sediment composed of finer grains, such as silt and clay, having a substantially greater volume of open spaces than those composed of coarse grains, such as sand and gravel. This relationship may at first seem counterintuitive in light of the fact that sand and gravel transmits water far more readily than silt and clay. But total porosity itself is not the determining factor in the ability to transmit water; instead, several other characteristics of the sedimentary particles and the pore spaces between them control the permeability of a rock or sediment. Foremost among these characteristics are the sizes and shapes of the individual pores…the size of the individual pores in a body of well-sorted sediment is directly proportional to grain size, thus the individual open spaces in a sand …are orders of magnitude larger than …silt and clay. …As a result, the pore spaces between grains of sand or gravel are similar in shape and size to the surrounding particles, and tend to be quite large relative to the size of water molecules. In contrast, individual clay grains are microscopic in size and consist of tiny, electrically charged plates…. As a result, the pore spaces between the clay minerals are also microscopic, generally only a few times wider than a molecule of water. The small pore dimensions, coupled with the electrical charge on the surfaces of the clay minerals, greatly retard the passage of water and instead tend to attract and cling tightly to water molecules, resulting in exceedingly slow permeabilities.” For a fast-moving, but illustrative video on this concept, see Water Movement in Soil, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Healthy Soil Supports Many Diverse Lifeforms Micro-organisms: Bacteria Nematodes Fungus roots Organisms visible to the eye: Lower grades can skip slides 10-12. They are provided to shed light on the ecological aspects of the soil community. Additional Information: Things we can’t see Bacteria, Algae, Fungus, Protozoa, Nematodes, and Arthropods – organisms with jointed legs, including insects, crustaceans, such as sow bugs (pill bugs), spiders. 10-25,000 arthropods in a square foot of forest soil. A billion bacteria in a teaspoon of healthy soil. Things we can see: Worms, insects, animals A variety (diversity) of organisms in soil is necessary for healthy soil, as they are part of the food web and ecosystem. Competition among these species keeps harmful organisms under control. The more species and more organisms, the better the soil is for plants AND clean water. Tiny to large insects & spiders Earth worms Tiny springtails https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/photogallery/soils/health/biology/gallery/?cid=1788&position=Promo

Review What different factors cause pore spaces in soil? Which would retain water the best – a sandy soil or a clayey soil? What types of organisms do you think you might find in your school soil? Pore spaces are caused by shape of the minerals, by organisms in the soil, by plant roots, by clumps of soil, and other factors. Clay retains water the best. They could see worms, beetles. If students look in the woods or in organic matter from a compost pile, they will see more organisms, include fungi.

Application Question To Think About Rain gardens are meant to catch large amounts of storm water and then let it slowly seep into the soil over one to two days. Which mix of soils would work best in a rain garden? And why?

Investigations and Activities Collect soil samples from the schoolground: Soil Components Texture Investigation Soils Percolation Investigation. Send to lab to have analyzed and/or use soil chemistry kits to learn pH and other chemical. characteristics.

Resources for Teachers Flow diagram for Texture by Feel. Commonly used in the field. Provided by the USDA Natural Conservation Resources Service. (Click here for a high-resolution version of the graphic.) Soil Science Society of America provides an excellent bank of soils lessons for multiple grades covering texture, biology, chemistry, forensics, and more. http://www.soils4teachers.org/lessons-and-activities#General9 Basic Hydrologic Science Course Runoff Processes Section Four: Soil Properties. In depth explanations with public domain graphics. http://wegc203116.uni-graz.at/meted/hydro/basic/Runoff/print_version/04-soilproperties.htm?vm=r#12 Soil Biology Primer, Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/health/biology/

Definitions for teachers Source (unless otherwise noted): Soil Health and Glossary, National Resources Conservation Service https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/?cid=nrcs142p2_053848 Actinomycetes: A large group of bacteria that grow in long filaments that are too small to see without magnification. Actinomycetes generate the smell of “healthy soil,” and are important in decomposing cellulose, chitin, and other hard-to-decompose compounds, especially at higher pH levels. Many produce antibiotics. Arthropods: Invertebrate animals with jointed legs. They include insects, crustaceans, sowbugs, springtails, arachnids (spiders), and others. Bacteria: Microscopic, single-celled organisms. They include the photosynthetic cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae), and actinomycetes (filamentous bacteria that give healthy soil its characteristic smell). Fungi: Multi-celled, non-photosynthetic organisms that are neither plants nor animals. Fungal cells form long chains called hyphae and may form fruiting bodies such as mold or mushrooms to disperse spores. Some fungi such as yeast are single-celled. Mineral: A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes" (Source: Nickel, E. H., 1995). "Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical composition and physical properties." (Source: O' Donoghue,1990). Mycorrhizal associations: A symbiotic association of certain fungi with roots. The fungi receive energy and nutrients from the plant. The plant receives improved access to water and some nutrients. Except for brassicas (mustard, broccoli, canola) and chenopods (beets, lamb’s-quarters, chard, spinach), most plants form mycorrhizal associations. Organic matter: any material that is part of or originated from living organisms. Includes soil organic matter, plant residue, mulch, compost, and other materials Permeability: the qualitative estimate of the ease with which fluids, gases, or plant roots pass through soil. Porosity: the volume of pores in a soil sample divided by the bulk volume of the sample.  Silt: a granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or as sediment mixed in suspension with water (also known as a suspended load) in a body of water such as a river. (source: Wikipedia)