A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 6e Chapter Ten: Emotional Development John W. Santrock

Exploring Emotion What are emotions? Feeling or affect in a state or interaction characterized by Behavior that reflects pleasure or displeasure Conscious feelings: specific, intense Physiological arousal

Exploring Emotion What are emotions? Biological roots…but shaped by culture and relationships Facial expressions of basic emotions Biological nature; same across cultures When, where, and how to express emotions are not culturally universal

Exploring Emotion Regulation of emotion A key dimension of development Effectively managing arousal to adapt and reach a goal Involves state of alertness or activation States (e.g. anger) can be too high for effective functioning

Exploring Emotion Regulation of emotion External sources regulate in infancy, childhood Shift to internal, self-initiated regulation with increasing age Better at managing situations Selects more effective ways of coping Wide variations in children’s abilities; adolescents have difficulty managing emotions

Exploring Emotion Regulation of emotion Parents’ roles in helping children Emotion-coaching approach Monitor child’s emotions Negative emotion is a coaching opportunity Emotion-dismissing approach Deny, ignore negative emotions Linked to poor emotional regulation in child

Emotional Competence Skills Has awareness of own emotional state Detecting others’ emotions Using the vocabulary of emotional terms in socially and culturally appropriate terms Having empathic, sympathetic sensitivity to others Recognizing inner emotions do not reflect outer ones Adaptively coping with negatives; self-regulatory Aware of emotions’ major impact on relationships Seeing oneself as feeling the way one wants to feel

Development of Emotion Infancy Primary emotions Present in humans and animals Humans: appears in first six months of life: surprise, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust Self-conscious emotions Self-awareness; emerges at 18 mos. or earlier Empathy, jealousy, and embarrassment

Development of Emotion Emotional expression and social relationships Infants: Two types Crying – Most important for communication Basic cry: Rhythmic pattern Anger cry: Variation of basic cry Pain cry: Long, sudden initial loud cry Smiling: has powerful impact on caregivers Reflexive smile: Innate origins Social smile: Response to external stimuli

Development of Emotion Emotional expression and social relationships Fear: First appears about 6 mos.; peaks at 18 mos. Stranger anxiety: Fear and wariness of strangers; intense between 9 and 12 mos. Affected by social context, stranger’s characteristics Individual variations Separation protest — Crying when caregiver leaves; peaks about 15 months of age

Figure 10.4 - Separation Protest in Four Cultures

Development of Emotion Emotional regulation and coping Infants use self-soothing strategies for coping Controversy: how caregivers should respond By age 2: language allows defining of emotions Contexts influence emotional regulation

Development of Emotion Early childhood Young children experience many emotions Self-conscious emotions Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt First appear about age 18 months Ability to reflect on emotions increases with age

Development of Emotion Early childhood Ages 2 to 4: increased number of ways and terms to describe emotions Learn about causes, consequences of feelings Ages 4 to 5: increased ability to reflect on emotions Middle and late childhood Marked improvement in understanding, managing emotions

Developmental Changes In Emotions During Middle and Late Childhood Improved emotional understanding Marked improvements in ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions Development of a capacity for genuine empathy

Development of Emotion Coping with stress Older children have more coping alternatives and use more cognitive coping strategies Intentional shifting of thoughts By age 10, most use cognitive strategies Unsupportive families, traumatic events may lessen abilities

Development of Emotion Middle and late childhood Recommendations for helping children cope Reassure children of safety and security Allow retelling and discussion of events Encourage discussion of feelings Help children make sense of events

Development of Emotion Adolescence Time of emotional turmoil (“storm and stress”) but not constantly Emotional changes instantly occur with little provocation Girls more vulnerable to depression Adolescent moodiness is normal Hormonal changes and environmental experiences involved in changing emotions

Figure 10.5 - Self-Reported Extremes of Emotions by Adolescents and Their Parents

Development of Emotion Adulthood and aging Adapt more effectively when emotionally intelligent Developmental changes in emotion continue through adult years Older adults have more positive emotions, report better control of emotions Feelings mellow; fewer highs and lows Positive connections with friends and family

Figure 10.6 - Changes in Positive & Negative Emotion Across the Adult Years

Development of Emotion Adulthood and aging Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Older adults become more selective about their social networks Emotional satisfaction is highly valued, positive emotional experiences maximized More frequent association with neighbors More motivated to achieve; gain knowledge

Figure 10.7 - Model of Socio-emotional Selectivity

Temperament Temperament Describing and classifying temperament Tendencies reflecting behavioral style and characteristic way of responding Describing and classifying temperament Chess and Thomas: three basic types Easy child — generally positive mood Difficult child — negative reactions, cries often Slow-to-warm — low intensity mood and activity levels; somewhat negative

Temperament Describing and classifying temperament Kagan’s behavioral inhibition Inhibition to unfamiliar Shy/avoidance, subdued, timid child Extremely uninhibited Extraverted, social, bold child Inhibition shows considerable stability from infancy through early childhood

Temperament Describing and classifying temperament Rothbart and Bates’ Classification Extraversion/surgency Positive anticipation, impulsivity Negative affectivity Easily distressed, fear and frustration often Effortful control (self-regulation) Attentional focusing, more cognition used

Temperament Biological Foundations and Experience Physiological characteristics are associated with different temperaments Heredity is aspect of temperament’s biological foundations (twin and adoption studies) Attributes become more stable over time as self-perceptions, behavioral preferences, and social experiences form personality

Developmental Connections Child Adult Easy temperament Usually well adjusted in life Difficult temperament Poor adjustment, more likely to have problems socially, in school and marriage Inhibition Low assertiveness, less social support, job and school delays Good emotional control

Temperament Developmental contexts Gender may be important factor that influences fate of temperament Many aspects of child’s environment encourage or discourage persistence of temperament characteristics Goodness of Fit Match between child’s temperament and environmental demands

Temperament Goodness of fit and parenting Some temperament characteristics pose more challenges than others Management strategies that worked for one child may not work for next one Be sensitive to individual characteristics of child Structure environment to be as good a fit as possible Avoid labeling as “difficult child”

Attachment and Love Attachment Social orientation in infants Close emotional bond between two people Social orientation in infants Face-to-face play: infant-caregiver interactions Still-face paradigm: shows infants react differently to people than objects Ages 1 to 2: more locomotion, social play with peers, independence, goal-directed motivation

Attachment and Love Social referencing Child reads emotional cues in others, reacts By second year of age: much better at this Social sophistication and insight reflected in infant’s perceptions of others Advanced social cognitive skills are expected to influence attachment awareness

Attachment and Love Theories of attachment Freud: infants attach to person or object providing oral satisfaction Harlow’s study proved otherwise Erikson: first year of life is critical time for attachment development Sense of trust or mistrust sets later expectations Physical comfort plays a role in development

Attachment and Love Theories of attachment Bowlby: stresses importance of attachment in first year and responsiveness of caregiver Develops in series of phases Phase 1: birth to 2 months Phase 2: 2 to 7 months of age Phase 3: 7 to 24 months of age Phase 4: 24 months and older

Attachment and Love Individual differences in attachment Ainsworth and the “strange situation” Measure of infant attachment to caregiver Requires infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions Securely attached or insecure Criticisms: May not reflect real world behavior Culturally-biased to Western children

Ainsworth’s Attachment Categories Securely attached Caregiver is secure base to explore environment from Insecure avoidant Shows insecurity by avoiding caregiver Insecure resistant Clings to caregiver, then resists by fighting against the closeness Insecure disorganized Shows insecurity by being disorganized, disoriented

Figure 10.11 - Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment

Attachment and Love Interpreting differences in attachment Secure attachment important in first year; provides foundation for healthy development Some developmentalists believe too much emphasis on attachment bond in infancy Ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts that exists in an infant’s world Ignores highly resilient and adaptive infants

Caregiving Styles and Attachment Baby’s Attachment Caregiver Behavior Secure Sensitive to signals, available Avoidant Unavailable or rejecting Resistant Inconsistent Disorganized Neglect or physically abuse

Attachment and Love Mothers and fathers as caregivers Dramatic increase in stay-at-home fathers Many have career-focused wives Fathers have ability to nurture, be as sensitive and responsive as mothers Maternal interactions: mostly child-care centered Paternal interactions: more likely to include play, engage in rough-and-tumble acts

Attachment and Love Child care Most U.S. children have multiple caregivers Parental concerns: reduced emotional attachment to parents, harm to cognitive development, improper socialization About 2 million children currently receive formal, licensed child care Types of child care vary extensively in United States

Attachment and Love Parental leave Far more extensive in other countries than United States Europe led the way: paid fourteen-week maternity leave Most countries: restrictions as to minimal employment period before leave taken In the United States: twelve weeks unpaid leave to care for newborns

Attachment and Love Parental leave In most European countries: Working parents get 70% or more of wages and paid leave averages 16 weeks Gender-equality family leave policies in Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden) Sweden: most liberal of all — 18 month leave with benefits for full and part-time workers

Attachment and Love Five types of parental leave from work Maternity leave: before and after birth Paternity leave: more important if second child born Parental leave: allows either parent Child-rearing leave: supplements maternity leave but typically paid at much lower level Family leave: covers reasons other than birth United States does not have paid leave policy

Attachment and Love Variations in child care Many factors affect child care: Age of child Type of child care Quality of program — this makes a difference Number of hours per week the child is in care High quality may not erase negative effects SES or families with few resources

Attachment and Love Variations in child care Ongoing national study in U.S. (NICHD) Patterns of use: infants being placed sooner Quality of care: lower for low-income families Amount of child care: extensive time lessened attachment sensitivity to mother, more behavioral issues Family and parenting influences are important

Attachment and Love Variations in child care Child care strategies for parents Quality of parenting is key to child development Make decisions that enhance good parenting Monitor child’s development Take time to find the best child care

Attachment and Love Adolescence Secure attachment to both parents positively related to peer and friendship relations Types of attachment to parents Dismissing/avoidant: caregiver rejection Preoccupied/ambivalent: inconsistent parenting Unresolved/disorganized: high fear due to traumatic experiences

Attachment and Love Adolescence Dating and romantic relationships Spend lots of time dating or thinking about it Form of recreation Source of status or achievement A way to learn about close relationships Function for mate selection

Attachment and Love Adolescence Dating and romantic relationships Younger adolescents getting involved Comfort in numbers; youth “hang out” in groups More time in mixed-gender peer groups Dating involvement linked to later adjustment Sociocultural contexts influences dating and role expectations

Attachment and Love Adulthood and attachment Adults count on romantic partners to be a secure base to which they can return and obtain comfort, security in stressful times Childhood attachment patterns can impact here Influences choices and behaviors Secure, avoidant, anxious attachments Other factors like communication can impact

Attachment and Love Adulthood and romantic love Also called passionate love or eros Strong components of sexuality and infatuation Complex intermingling of emotions Often predominates early part of love relationship Affectionate love or companionate love Have deep, caring affection for person

Attachment and Love Adulthood Sternberg’s triangular theory of love Stresses three main components/dimensions Passion: physical, sexual attraction Intimacy: warmth, closeness, and sharing Commitment: intent to remain together Varying combinations create qualitatively different types of love

Figure 10.15 - Sternberg’s Triangle of Love

Attachment and Love Adulthood Falling out of love Collapse of close relationship Tragic feelings initially Over time — happiness and personal development may benefit One-sided relationships are harmful

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