Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 5 Memory This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. What Is Memory? Human memory is an information-processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information. Key Question 5.1: What is memory? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. What Is Memory? Memory A cognitive system that processes, encodes, and stores the information we learn and later allows us to retrieve it Delete clip art? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Metaphors for Memory Human memory is not like a video recorder. Human memory is an interpretive system, much like an artist. Reconstructive process Unique “perception” of events Information undergoes systematic changes as it is processed. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Human Memory Is Good at Remembering Information: On which attention is focused In which we are interested That arouses us emotionally That fits with our previous experiences That we rehearse Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory’s Three Basic Tasks Encoding Storage Access and Retrieval Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Access and Retrieval Select stimulus from vast array of input Modification of the information to fit the preferred format for the memory system Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Access and Retrieval Retention of encoded material over time Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Memory’s Three Basic Functions Encoding Storage Access and Retrieval The location and recovery of information from memory Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How Do We Form Memories? Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but all three work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning. Key Question 5.2: How do we form memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The First Stage: Sensory Memory On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second. Try to remember as many letters as you can. How do we form memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. D J B X H G C L Y How do we form memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The First Stage: Sensory Memory How many can you recall? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. D J B X H G C L Y Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Characteristics of Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory Briefly holds information awaiting entry into working memory Sensory images; no meaningful encoding Holds twelve to sixteen items Lasts from one-quarter of a second to a few seconds Separate sensory registers for each sense How do we form memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Multiple Sensory Stores Figure 5.4 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The First Stage: Sensory Memory Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of neural activity in the sense organs. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Characteristics of Working Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory Involved in control of attention Attaches meaning to stimulation Makes associations among ideas and events Encodes information with meaning for long-term storage Capacity of 7 + or – 2 chunks of information Information stored for about twenty seconds in duration Rehearsal leads to longer duration Acoustic encoding Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Chunking Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units Figure 5.5 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Rehearsal in Working Memory Maintenance Rehearsal Information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading. Elaborative Rehearsal Information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Components of Working Memory Central executive: directs attention to input Phonological loop: temporarily stores sounds Sketchpad: stores/manipulates visual images Episodic buffer: helps to remember events Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Model of Working Memory Figure 5.6 A Model of Working Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s original model divided memory into three stages. Events must first be processed by sensory memory and short-term memory (now called working memory) before they finally go into long-term memory storage—from which they can later be retrieved back into working memory. Baddeley’s (2003) updated version of working memory includes a central executive that directs attention, a sketchpad for visual and spatial information, a phonological loop for sounds, and an episodic buffer that can combine many kinds of information into memories of events. This drawing includes all of these refinements to the original model of working memory. Source: Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417–423. Figure 5.6 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Levels of Processing in Working Memory Information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful terms in LTM will be better remembered. Figure 5.7 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory Long-term storage of information Meaningful mental categories Unlimited capacity Unlimited duration Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Types of Information in Long-Term Memory Procedural Memory Stores memories for how things are done Declarative Memory Stores explicit information; Includes episodic and semantic memory Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Subdivisions of Declarative Memory Episodic Memory Stores personal events, or “episodes” Semantic Memory Stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5.8 Components of Long-Term Memory Declarative memory involves knowing specific information—knowing “what.” It stores facts, personal experiences, language, concepts—things about which we might say, “I remember!” Procedural memory involves knowing “how”—particularly motor skills and behavioral learning. Figure 5.8 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Engram The physical changes associated with a memory trace Anterograde Amnesia Inability to form new memories Retrograde Amnesia Inability to remember information previously stored in memory Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued. Key Question 5.3: How do we retrieve memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Do We Retrieve Memories? Implicit Memory Not deliberately learned; that of which you have no conscious awareness Explicit Memory Processed with attention; can be consciously recalled How do we retrieve memories? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Retrieval Cues Stimuli used to bring a memory to consciousness or to cue a behavior Priming Providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory Delete clip art? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Retrieving Explicit Information Gist The sense or meaning, as contrasted with exact details Recall Retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information Recognition Retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us? Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins,” which are really byproducts of otherwise adaptive features of human memory. Key Question 5.4: Why does memory sometimes fail us? Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Memory’s “Seven Sins” Transience Absent-Mindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence Delete slip art Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Transience The impermanence of a long-term memory: long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time. Relearning Savings method Forgetting curve Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Absent-Mindedness Forgetting caused by lapses in attention An attentive shift leads to retrieval failure E.g., change blindness Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Blocking Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved E.g., forgetting a familiar person’s name Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Misattribution Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Suggestibility Process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion Misinformation effect Fabricated memories Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Bias An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories Expectancy bias Self-consistency bias Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Persistence Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory Despite the grief they cause us, the “seven sins” may actually be byproducts of adaptive features of memory. Absent-mindedness is the byproduct of the useful ability to shift our attention. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Using Psychology to Learn Psychology Make the material meaningful. Spread learning over time. Minimize interference. Review and elaborate material. Test yourself with retrieval cues. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.