BLACK POWER 1965-1968

Civil Rights movement Great advances Many problems remained Northern cities and West Coast Watts Riots 1965 highlighted neglect 239 outbreaks of violence in 200 cities over 5 ‘long hot summers’ 1964-68. Reflected frustration of ghetto residents

The Kerner Commission Set up to investigate causes of riots and suggest solutions. Report published in February 1968 Highlighted extent of social deprivation in the ghetto areas. Called for sweeping reform Vietnam cost shelved the recommendations

Causes of urban conflict Employment – factory automation Education standards Law enforcement Living conditions The riots had illustrated how the civil rights movement had failed to tackle the problems of poverty and economic inequality.

Tackling new issues SCLC in Chicago CORE – economics department (1964) + Freedom Houses in ghetto areas

Divisions in the civil rights movement Vietnam War – SNCC+CORE anti-war, SCLC later condemned the war; NAACP supported the government. SNCC became more radical (1963-65) CORE became more radical Younger campaigners were frustrated. King became a source of irritation/ SNCC and CORE resented white campaigners ‘Pepsi generation getting high on civil rights’

Emergence of militancy Nation of Islam (Black Muslims) led by Elijah Muhammad. Whites were ‘blue eyed devils’ Minimal social contact with whites ‘The Hate that Hate produced’ gave the movement publicity. Ghetto residents attracted to NOI.

Malcolm X Influential NOI spokesman Militant counterpoint to MLK Rejected integration Strained relations with the NOI ‘Chickens coming home to roost’ 1964 established the Muslim Mosque in New York City (break with the NOI)

Malcolm X – final years Mecca visit – change in attitudes Organisation of Afro-American Unity formed. Unify all people of African descent. Failed objectives – assassinated 1965

Malcolm X - analysis An irresponsible media personality? No mass organisation. No real alternative programme for racial progress. Abstract achievements – philosophical rather than practical. Highlighted limitations of the civil rights movement. Internationalised black protest Source of inspiration to Black Power movement. Socialist revolutionary or black nationalist?

1966 – new leaders SNCC – Stokely Carmichael CORE – Floyd McKissick

March against fear - 1966 Highlighted divisions between SNCC/CORE and SCLC/NAACP James Meredith march – shot King took over with help. King objected to armed black guards from SNCC. NAACP would not take part Carmichael publicly called for ‘Black Power’.

July 1966 CORE convention endorsed the idea of Black Power. The word ‘multiracial’ was erased from CORE’s constitution.

December 1966 SNCC Central Committee voted to expel all whites. H. Rap Brown replaced Carmichael. Brown advocated the take over by violence of white owned stores in the ghetto.

Black Panthers Most radical Black Power group. Founded in October 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. Influenced by Malcolm X. 10 Point Manifesto. Nationalistic in tone. Reparations, exemption from military service, release from jail if not convicted by their peers. Separatist thinking.

Black Panthers Membership never exceeded 5,000. Admiration and support in ghetto communities. ‘Breakfast for Children’ Panther clinics Monitored police Uniform

Black Pride Black Power activists all agreed on the need for greater emphasis on black pride and culture. Haircuts and dress

Assessment – Black Power A vague concept No precise meaning or definition Vagueness united people at first. Long term – major weakness as all the groups attempted to stamp their individuality on the movement. Appealing slogan Summed up the sense of frustration Never translated into a well thought out practical programme.