Chapter 5 Biological Roots of Criminal Behavior Frank Schmalleger PowerPoint presentation created by Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.

Major Principles of Biological Theories The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus of the personality The basic determinants of human behavior are constitutionally or genetically based Observed gender/racial differences in rates/types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differences

Major Principles of Biological Theories The basic determinants of behavior may be inherited Much human conduct is rooted in instinct The biological roots of human conduct have become increasingly disguised

Major Principles of Biological Theories Some behavior is the result of biological propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages The interplay among heredity, biology, and the social environment must be considered

Theory in Perspective Early Positivism Period: 1880s – 1930 Built on evolutionary principles First to apply scientific techniques to study of crime Criminals as evolutionary throwbacks Period: 1880s – 1930 Concepts: phrenology, atavism, born criminals, criminaloids

Early Biological Theories Criminal anthropology: The scientific study of the relationship between human physical characteristics and criminality Physiognomy: The “science” of reading personality characteristics from facial features

Early Biological Theories Phrenology: The shape of the skull indicates the personality and can be used to predict criminality Franz Joseph Gall Located the roots of personality in the brain Theory of phrenology accepted because it was a move away from theology toward scientific understanding

The Positivist School Positivism is built on two principles Acceptance of social determinism Application of scientific techniques to the study of crime and criminology Rooted in the work of Auguste Comte Reality consists of a world of objectively defined facts that can be scientifically measured and, ultimately, controlled

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) Developed concept of atavism Criminality is the result of primitive urges that survived the evolutionary process Atavistic individuals are throwbacks to a more primitive biological state Criminaloids – people pulled into breaking the law by environmental influences

Cesare Lombroso Also studied female offenders Masculinity hypothesis Criminal behavior among women derive from atavistic foundations Masculinity hypothesis Criminal women exhibited masculine features and mannerisms

Theory in Perspective Constitutional theories Crime relates to offenders’ body types, inheritance, genetics, external, observable physical characteristics Period: Classical, 1930s – 1940s; modern, 1960s – present Concepts: Somatotyping, mesomorph, ectomorph, endomorph, XYY, supermale, twin studies, behavioral genetics, heritability

Body Types Constitutional theories/somatotyping Body types indicative of criminal tendencies Ernst Kretschmer – relationship between body build and personality type Cycloid: heavyset, soft body; commit nonviolent property crimes Schizoid: athletic, muscular body; commit violent crimes Displastics – emotional, out of control; commit sexual offenses, crimes of passion

Body Types William H. Sheldon outlined four body types and associated temperaments Endomorph: soft, round, overweight, sociable Mesomorph: athletic, muscular; most likely to be associated with delinquency Ectomorph: thin, fragile, shy, inhibited Balanced type: average build Later research by Shelden and Eleanor Glueck also supported mesomorph/delinquency link

Theory in Perspective Body chemistry Period: 1940s – present Uses chemical influences, including weather, to explain criminal behavior Period: 1940s – present Concepts: Weather and crime, hypoglycemia, vitamins, food allergies, seratonin, PMS, MAOA

Hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) Some research linked excess sugar consumption to hyperactivity and aggressiveness Current evidence on sugar/behavior link unclear PET scans found lower glucose levels in prefrontal cortex of murderers

Food Allergies and Additives Allergic reactions may affect brain Reduce learning during childhood Contribute to delinquency, adult crime Food additives (MSG, dyes, artificial flavorings) may be linked to violence Caffeine and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior Vitamins, other nutrients may have behavioral impact

Hormones and Criminality Testosterone – male sex hormone Relationship between high blood levels of testosterone and increased male aggressiveness Combined with low brain levels of serotonin Changes in testosterone levels in women may also be linked to personality changes

Hormones and Criminality Female hormone fluctuations may also be linked to crime Drop in brain serotonin levels before menstruation may be linked to PMS Evidence linking PMS to violent or criminal behavior far from clear

Weather and Crime Temperature is the only weather variable consistently related to crime Relationship moderated by temporal factors Consistent with routine activities theory

Genetics and Crime Criminal families Eugenic criminology The Juke family – Richard L. Dugdale The Kallikak family – Henry H. Goddard Eugenic criminology Root causes of criminality were passed down in the form of “bad genes.” Eugenics movement: 1920s – 1930s Buck v. Bell (1927)

The Kallikak Family When Martin Kallikak, Sr. was a young soldier, he had a liaison with an "unnamed, feeble-minded tavern girl." This tryst resulted in the birth of an illegitimate son, Martin Kallikak, Jr. The Kakos (bad) strain of the Kallikak family descended from this line. Later in his life, Martin Kallikak, Sr., married a Quaker woman from a good family. The Kallos (beauty) line descended from this marriage. Goddard's genealogical research revealed that the union with the feeble-minded tavern girl resulted in generations of "mental defectives" who were plagued by illegitimacy, prostitution, alcoholism, epilepsy, and lechery. His investigation of the other Kallikak branch revealed precisely the opposite: The marriage of Martin Kallikak, Sr., to the respectable Quakeress yielded generations of society's finest citizens. Goddard believed that the striking schism separating the two branches of the family was due entirely to the different genetic input from the women

The Juke family (1915) Dugdale studied 709 persons, 540 being of Juke blood and 169 of "X" blood who had married into the Juke family. He estimated that the Juke family would consist of 1,200 persons were it possible to have traced all the lines of descent from the original 6 sisters. Of the 709 whom he studied, 180 had either been in the poorhouse or received outdoor relief to the extent of 800 years. There had been 140 criminals and offenders, 60 habitual thieves, 7 lives sacrificed by murder, 50 common prostitutes, 40 women venereally diseased contaminating 440 persons, and 30 prosecutions in bastardy.

The Juke family In the present investigation, 2,820 people have been studied, inclusive of all considered by Dugdale; 2,094 were of Juke blood and 726 of "X" blood who married into the Juke family; of these 366 were paupers, while 171 were criminals; and 10 lives have been sacrificed by murder. In school work 62 did well, 288 did fairly, while 458 were retarded two or more years. It is known that 166 never attended school; the school data for the rest of the family were unobtainable. There were 282 intemperate and 277 harlots.

Buck v. Bell Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), was the United States Supreme Court ruling that upheld a statute instituting compulsory sterilization of the mentally retarded "for the protection and health of the state." It was largely seen as an endorsement of negative eugenics—the attempt to improve the human race by eliminating "defectives" from the gene pool. In 1924, the commonwealth of Virginia adopted a statute authorizing the compulsory sterilization of the mentally retarded for the purpose of eugenics. The ruling legitimized Virginia's sterilization procedures until they were repealed in 1974.

The XYY “Supermale” Research in 1965 led to concept of “supermale” with XYY chromosome – considered potentially violent Supermale characteristics Taller than average Acne Less than average intelligence Overrepresented in prisons, mental hospitals Families have lower than average history of crime, mental illness

Chromosomes and Modern-Day Criminal Families Dutch research found male descendants of a “criminal family” had high proportion of violent crime arrests Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA): Enzyme that breaks down serotonin and noradrenaline, chemicals linked to aggressive behavior Excess amounts of MAOA linked to aggression

Behavioral Genetics Behavioral genetics Study of genetic and environmental contributions to individual variations on human behavior Sir Francis Galton-pioneer in eugenics Twin studies compare MZ and DZ twins Twins occur in about 1 in 85 human births. Twins come in two types: fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) and identical or monozygotic (MZ). Research supports relationship between heredity and risk of criminality

The Human Genome Project (HGP) International research project mapping the human genome HGP may support concept of behavioral genetic determinism Belief that genes are major determining factor in human behavior

The Human Genome Project Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a 13-year project coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health. During the early years of the HGP, the Wellcome Trust (U.K.) became a major partner; additional contributions came from Japan, France, Germany, China, and others. Project goals were to identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA, determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, store this information in databases, improve tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.

The Human Genome Project ELSI Research Goals Examine issues surrounding the completion of the human DNA sequence and the study of human genetic variation. Examine issues raised by the integration of genetic technologies and information into health care and public health activities. Examine issues raised by the integration of knowledge about genomics and gene-environment interactions in non-clinical settings. Explore how new genetic knowledge may interact with a variety of philosophical, theological, and ethical perspectives. Explore how racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic factors affect the use, understanding, and interpretation of genetic information; the use of genetic services; and the development of policy.

Male-Female Differences in Criminality Men are much more criminalistic Women make up 51% of US population Arrested for 18% of violent and 31% of property crimes Explanations Culture and social environment Biology and genetics

Theory in Perspective Sociobiology Period: 1975 – present Concepts: The systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior Period: 1975 – present Concepts: Altruism- the deliberate pursuit of the interests or welfare of others or the public interest. Tribalism-strong loyalty to one's own tribe, party, or group. Survival of the gene pool

Sociobiology Theoretical synthesis of biology, behavior, and evolutionary ecology Introduced by Edward O. Wilson in 1975 A new paradigm in criminological theories

Sociobiology The main determinant of behavior is the need to ensure the survival and continuity of genetic material throughout generations Territoriality as an explanation of human conflict Altruism facilitates the continuity of the gene pool

Criticisms of Sociobiology Fails to consider the significance of culture, social learning, individual experiences Fundamentally wrong in its depiction of basic human nature Rationalizes the labeling and stigmatization of minorities Humans are too different from other animal species to apply findings from animal studies to human behavior

Crime and Human Nature James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein (1985) – revival of biological criminology Constitutional factors contribute to crime Gender Age Body type Intelligence Personality

Crime and Human Nature Constitutional factors predispose one to specific types of behavior; societal reactions to these predispositions determine the form of continued behavior Interplay among heredity, biology, social environment crucial in any theory of crime causation

Policy Implications of Biological Theories Steven Pinker claims social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior Identifies three myths that make up the modern social science model Myth of the blank slate-holds that that the human mind has no unique structure and that its entire organization comes from the environment via socialization and learning. Myth of the noble savage-holds that people have no evil impulses and that all malice is a product of the corruption that arises from living in association with artificial, flawed, modern social institutions. Ghost in the machine myth-hold that people are inhabited by an immaterial soul that is the locus of free will and choice and which, it is held, can not be reduced to a function of the brain.

Policy Implications of Biological Theories C. Ray Jeffrey’s list of effective social policies: Pre-and post-natal care Monitoring children through development Neurological examinations Biological research in prisons and treatment facilities One concern is possible re-emergence of the eugenics movement

Critiques of Biological Theories Conceptualization of criminality is inadequate Twin studies misclassify twins as MZ/DZ Hard to estimate degree of criminality among sample populations Many methodological problems Research conducted outside the US may not be applicable within this country