1st November 2013 P2 AS Philosophy Jez Echevarría Philosophy Unit 1 Why should I be moral? Morality as a constitutive of self-interest III 1st November 2013 P2 AS Philosophy Jez Echevarría

Objectives To consider Aristotle’s version of Virtue Ethics To consider criticisms of Aristotle’s ethical system To continue to understand the relative aspects of Virtue Ethics

Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE) Ancient Greek Philosopher, Mathematician and Natural Scientist Student of Plato Teacher of Alexander the Great Invented the syllogism Considered to be one of the fathers of Western Philosophy http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbgHbzrL3d0

Aristotle (384 BCE - 322 BCE) Rejects Plato’s Theory of Forms For Aristotle, ethical knowledge guides our actions, so abstract ideas (like the Forms) cannot really be applied to moral behaviour. Ethical knowledge therefore needs to be based on actual experience. For Aristotle, ultimate realities were concrete things, so the basis of his ethics was an account of human nature Despite this his ethics prove to be remarkably similar to Plato’s He sets out his ethics in his book Nichomachean Ethics

Aristotle’s basic premises 1) Everything tends to its own good: every action is aimed at some positive end or ideal situation ; a teleological approach. 2) The ultimate end or purpose for human beings is happiness (Gk – Eudaimonia). Not simply pleasure, but wider than that, including well-being, flourishing or fulfilment. 3) Happiness is achieved by exercising the unique human faculty, which distinguishes us from other living creatures. 4) This unique human faculty is reason (language/logos). Conclusion: the flourishing human being achieves the good life by exercising reason, which is our chief function.

Aristotle’s basic principles So Aristotle’s answer to the question “Why be moral?” will be that through exercising the virtues we will achieve happiness. Happiness is the only end that is desired for it’s own sake. You can ask why you might act in any particular way, and you might reply that it makes you happy. To ask why you want to be happy requires no further reply – happiness is not a means to an end but an end in itself. As with Plato, self-interest is fulfilled in that a virtuous life is a constituent of the happy, good life.

Aristotle’s basic principles – some problems with the 4 premises 1) The teleological view of human nature may not be fully correct – while many things do act for an end, it cannot be said of all things – eg. Russell’s “mother” analogy. According to Russell some things just are, as a brute fact and this may also be true of humanity. 2) The idea that humans have an ultimate end and that it is the pursuit of happiness is a massive assumption – Aristotle is not postulating a God, which is what it would take to have a definite “blueprint” for humanity – instead it is simply a matter of opinion

Aristotle’s basic principles – some problems with the 4 premises 3) Do reason and language (Logos) represent a truly unique human faculty? No real evidence to support this view (curiously agreeing with Plato though) – in any case, why should exercising our unique feature give us happiness? However, most people would still accept that the flourishing of human beings does provide a persuasive end and goal for our activity. People cannot flourish in isolation - they are part of a community, acting morally in everybody’s self-interest, Emphasis on reason, leads to doctrine of “the mean

Aristotle’s doctrine of “the mean” Excesses are to be avoided, and humans should moderate their behaviour, avoiding extremes. This allows us to act “for the right reasons, with the right feelings, to the right degree towards the right person” – archer analogy We can avoid destructive extremes by choosing the “virtuous mean” Deficiency Virtuous mean Excess Cowardice Courage Recklessness Humbleness Pride Arrogance Meaness Generosity Extravagance

Aristotle’s virtues Unlike Plato, Aristotle does not agree that knowledge alone can make us virtuous – we have to practice the virtues and acquire them through following role models of virtuous people. Aristotle doesn’t suggest that reasons rules over all other emotions and thoughts, but that desires and spirit might well need to lead, in moderation, depending on the situation. But is there a definitive list of virtues that can be agreed by all? TASK 1 Make a list of what you would consider are virtues in the world today (essentially, what do you consider to be the virtues of your world?) 5-10 mins Feedback

Aristotle’s version of the great-souled man - (p84) Aristotle’s virtues Aristotle Christian Hume Modern suggestions Friendliness Selfless Love Benevolence Honesty Courage Justice Hard Work Strength of mind Pride Humility Cheerfulness Trustworthiness Just anger Hope Modesty Loyalty Self-disciple Mercy Humaneness Self-respect Prudence Temperance Politeness Wise judgement Practical Wisdom Charity Decency Altruism Aristotle’s version of the great-souled man - (p84)

Some further aspects… Aristotle places the emphasis on the character of the person taking a particular course of moral action, not the action. Deotological moral theories would concentrate on the rightness or wrongness of the action, in and of itself, whereas Aristotle's teleological ethics considers the character of the actor, and in so doing, makes the theory situation sensitive – e.g what would a virtuous person do? What would Jesus do? Note that while Virtues Ethics is teleological (considers the end product, or outcome) it is not relativistic as it is still firmly rooted in a set of “universal” principles.

Some further aspects… Circularity……if we ask what the virtuous mean is we are told that it is the right action, at the right time, etc, that leads to human flourishing. When we ask what human flourishing is, we are referred to the virtuous mean. The virtues appear extremely dull. What is a fulfilling life? Ignores the fact that good can out of immoderation. There are many example of charismatic teachers reaching enlightenment through extreme and revolutionary behaviour – eg. Jesus Christ

Let’s apply it to a practical issue……Abortion! Homework 1) Identify 4 different reasons (or situatiuons) why a woman might consider terminating a pregnancy. Do not consider duty or egoism in calculating For each reason, consider: What are the relevant virtues? Why have you selected each one? How might they be applied? Try to reach a decision about the moral course of action Be ready to use the outcomes next lesson – I will also collect them in

Next Time….. Criticisms of Virtue Ethics… …leading to… Morality as overcoming self-interest (deontological ethical theories)

What have I learnt today? To consider Aristotle’s version of Virtue Ethics To consider criticisms of Aristotle’s ethical system To continue to understand the relative aspects of Virtue Ethics