Permian Coconino Sandstone: How did it form? Research by: Leonard Brand, PhD Loma Linda University

Introduction: The Permian Coconino Sandstone, in N Arizona, is consistently interpreted by geologists as wind deposited (eolian) desert sand dunes How does it relate to the biblical global flood account? Could there have been episodes of high winds during that event? Or is the eolian interpretation wrong? Science can address these questions, even if the questions originate from a source outside of science

The Coconino Sandstone is the whitish layer near the top of the Grand Canyon

Cross-bedded sand is formed by currents (wind or water) depositing sand on the faces of dunes

These cross-bedded sand deposits can form underwater as well as in deserts.

The only fossils in the Coconino SS are fossil animal tracks (amphibians or reptiles)

Study of the fossil trackways was helpful in evaluating the most likely environment for deposition of the Coconino Sandstone

Live animals were observed in different environments, for comparison of their tracks with the fossil tracks

Tracks made underwater (#1 below) were the only ones that had the details that are present in the fossil tracks. Fossil tracks Underwater Dry sand

Many of the fossil trackways are unusual Many of the fossil trackways are unusual. They appear to be four-footed (tetrapod) animals drifting sideways. How can that happen?

Salamanders in a water current often are drifted sideways, but keep on walking forward Even as they drift their toes always point forward

The trackways in this figure are drawn from fossils The trackways in this figure are drawn from fossils. The animals are drawn to show how the odd trackways can be produced as they are drifted sideways by changing lateral water currents This could not happen in a desert

This animal was walking to the left This animal was walking to the left. There should be other tracks in the circled area, but there are none. How could this happen?

This can be explained if the animal was underwater and could swim down and begin walking. If it was not underwater there is apparently no explanation that will work.

This research resulted in several research papers published in quality earth science research journals. One paper was republished in Benchmark Papers in Geology

Conclusions The fossil trackways are on the sloping cross-bed faces (foresets), and they are detailed impressions that resemble the underwater modern tracks, but not the tracks on dry sand Sideways drifting trackways can be produced by animals underwater, but seems impossible on a desert dune Trackways that start or stop suddenly can only be made by animals underwater. They can swim and then land and make tracks.

Conclusions The evidence points to an underwater origin of the Coconino Sandstone, rather than a desert origin This would be more like the submarine sand waves found in shallow ocean areas More evidence is being gathered about other features of the Coconino Sandstone We noticed features of the trackways that had not been noticed, or not taken seriously by others

Conclusions Research questions in this project were motivated by a desire to understand how to relate the sandstone with the biblical flood. Research with a biblical motivation, and resulting from a biblical worldview resulted in successful science. This work is one illustration of how a scientist can address Bible-based questions about geology and accomplish research publishable in the best scientific research journals.