- Different picture of the three sounds [s], [z], [ʃ] in Korean and English: Korean: The three sounds are allophones of one and the same phoneme. English:

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- Different picture of the three sounds [s], [z], [ʃ] in Korean and English: Korean: The three sounds are allophones of one and the same phoneme. English: They are in contrast and belong to three separate phonemes. English Korean Contrast: ship-zip-sip /ʃ/ [ʃ] /z/ [z] /s/ /s/ [s] (i) Phonetic similarity: [s] and [z] share the place and manner of articulation, different in voicing; [s] and [ʃ] share the voicing and the manner of articulation different in place of articulation. (ii) Allophonic processes: change to [ʃ] before /i/, and to [z] after nasals.(Korean)

- Assimilation Processes Assimilation refers to the influence that one sound may have on another when they are contiguous in time. (i) regressive assimilation(anticipatory coarticulation): The following(conditioning) sound influences the preceding(conditioned) sound. [s] [ʃ] / /i/ /sigan/ [ʃigan] ‘time’ (ii) progressive assimilation(perseverative coarticulation): The preceding sound influences the following sound. /s/ [z] / /n/ /insa/ [inza] ‘greetings’

/d/ Contrast: day - they [ð] /ð/ Korean English [r] /r/ Malayalam English (separate phoneme) (allophone) /n/ [n] /n/ / / [ ] Contrast: panni “pig” kaņņi ”first” Spanish English (allophone) (separate phoneme) [d] /d/ /d/ Contrast: day - they [ð] /ð/ Korean English (allophone) (separate phoneme) [r] /r/ /l/ Contrast: lake - rake [l] /l/

To sum up (a) The goal of any phonemic (phonological) analysis is to determine the relationship between two or more sounds in a language. (b) Two languages may share the same sounds, but arrange them differently. That is, phonetic identity does not result in phonemic identity. (c) Allophones of the same phoneme in a language must be phonetically similar and be in complementary distribution. (d) Realizations of different phonemes are in overlapping distribution, and are in contrast. That is, they must be capable of changing the meaning of a word if substituted for each other. (e) Rules often change only one or two features of a sound (or a group of sounds), rather than making massive changes. (f) The set of sounds a rule applies to and the sounds appearing in the environment of a rule normally share a particular phonetic feature or features. Sets of sounds that share the same value for a feature set or sets of features are called “natural class.”