can just as well be expressed using the word because: (Explanation C) If and Because A causal chain such as ‘If you have a cold (P), (then) you have a runny nose (Q),’ can just as well be expressed using the word because: ‘Because you have a cold (P), you have a runny nose (Q).’

But in our speech we sometimes mention the Q before the P, as in: (Explanation C) If and Because In reality, the cause (P – the cold) comes before the effect (Q – the runny nose). But in our speech we sometimes mention the Q before the P, as in: ‘You have a runny nose (Q) because you have a cold (P)’, or ‘You have a runny nose (Q) if you have a cold (P).’ This does not normally cause problems, because we know that the sentences still mean that P causes Q. They remain true, even though the two halves have been completely swapped round.

Unfortunately, people do sometimes make a mistake of thinking: (Explanation C) If and Because As a whole group, make up another causal chain of the form ‘If P, Q’, and check that it remains true whether you say ‘Because P, Q’ or ‘Q because P’ or ‘Q if P’ Unfortunately, people do sometimes make a mistake of thinking: (a) ‘If/because you have a cold (P), you have a runny nose (Q)’ remains true in this form: (b) ‘If/because you have a runny nose (Q), you have a cold (P)’. As a whole group, see if you can work out why this is not so, focussing on what causes what, and on whether the two halves have been completely swapped around.

(Explanation C) Rash Reversing Sentence (b) ‘If/because you have a runny nose (Q), you have a cold (P)’ does not remain true – we say, does not ‘follow’ from sentence (a) – for the simple reason that a runny nose (Q) could result from some other cause than having a cold (P). For example, you could have a runny nose if/because you have hay fever. As a whole group, can you think of any other things that could cause a runny nose?

(Explanation C) Rash Reversing We would not want a doctor to see a runny nose and jump rashly to the conclusion that her patient has a cold if he does, in fact, have hay fever or some other problem. And, in general, we would not want other people, or even ourselves, to make the mistake of ‘rash reversing’ – that is, reversing the events (P and Q), but leaving the ‘if’ or ‘because’ in place.

(Exercise C, 1) Reasonable Reversing In pairs or groups 1. Reverse the following sentences in the right way – swapping the two halves completely, including the ‘if’ or ‘because’ – and check that they remain true. A. If you boil water, it starts to evaporate. B. Because the road was slippery, the driver lost control of the car. C. You will be shown mercy if you will apologise for your mistake. D. I went to the police station because someone stole my bike.

(Exercise C, 2) Rash Reversing 2. Now reverse the same sentences ‘rashly’ - swapping the events, but leaving the ‘if’ or ‘because’ in place – and give simple reasons why the ‘rash’ reversals would not be true. A. If you boil water, it starts to evaporate. B. Because the road was slippery, the driver lost control of the car. C. You will be shown mercy if you will apologise for your mistake. D. I went to the police station because someone stole my bike.

(Explanation C) Reasonable Reversing ‘If P, Q’ sentences remain true if you take the ‘If’ with the P when you reverse them.

(Explanation C) Reasonable reversing [2] There is one special sort of ‘If P, Q’ sentence, however, that remains true even if you reverse only the P and Q. Here is an example: ‘If she is a pacifist (P), she is opposed to wars (Q)’ Reversing the P and Q, but leaving the ‘if’ in place, we get ‘If she is opposed to wars (Q), she is a pacifist (P)’. But this sentence is just as true as the original. The reason is that Q (being opposed to wars) gives the meaning of P (being a pacifist), not the cause. Put another way, the link between them is verbal (ie, to do with words) not causal.

(Exercise C, 3 - 4): Reasonable Reversing 3. In pairs and/or groups: Discuss which of the following sentences can reasonably be reversed – that is, remain true – even if you just reverse the P and Q, leaving the ‘If’ in place: A. If it’s got eight legs, (then) it is an arachnid. B. If it gets much colder, (then) I’ll decide to stay indoors. C. You get a shock if you touch that wire. D. Of course she’s a film star if she is famous for acting in films. E. If he’s an addict, (then) he’s going to find it very hard to break the habit.

(Exercise C, 3 - 4): Reasonable Reversing A. If it’s got eight legs, (then) it is an arachnid. B. If it gets much colder, (then) I’ll decide to stay indoors. C. You get a shock if you touch that wire. D. Of course she’s a film star if she is famous for acting in films. E. If he’s an addict, (then) he’s going to find it very hard to break the habit. 4. For each causal link above, be ready to say exactly what is the cause and what is the effect. For each verbal link, be ready to say which words are giving the meaning of which.

(Explanation C.1): Verbal not Causal Did you think that the sentence: ‘If he’s an addict, (then) he’s going to find it very hard to break the habit’, expressed a causal link? Perhaps you even reasoned that the person was going to find it very hard to break his habit because he was an addict – which certainly looks like a causal explanation. But causal explanations, strictly, have to say how things come to be – in this case, how the person might end up finding it very hard to break his habit. Fearing pain might lead him into that state, or perhaps even just liking a taste.

(Explanation C.1): Verbal not Causal As a whole group, discuss what other things might cause or lead someone to find it very hard to break a habit. Now notice that saying that someone ‘is an addict’ is not to say what might lead him into finding it very hard to break a habit. It is simply to say in other words that he finds it very hard to break the habit. So the sentence expresses a verbal link (giving a meaning) NOT a causal one (giving a cause).