Explanations of attachment Learning Theory – Explanations which explain behaviour in terms of learning rather than any inborn tendencies. Evolutionary Theory- behaviour has adapted through evolution so that advantageous physical or behavioural characteristics are more likely to survive.

Learning objectives: apply knowledge of learning approach to attachment To outline Bowlby’s theory of attachment, including the concepts of: Adaptive Social Releasers Critical Period Monotropy Internal working model To evaluate Bowlby’s theory by examining a range of research – Using CASTLES

Stretch: how can this theory be used to explain attachment? LEARNING THEORY 1. On your whiteboards: What can you remember about the Learning theory Stretch: how can this theory be used to explain attachment? Learning theory very popular in psychology in early 20th Century. Learning theory proposes that all behaviour is leant and we are born as a ‘blank slate’ Learning theorists suggest that all learning including attachment is learnt through either operant or classical conditioning

1. Classical Conditioning - learning through association Involves learning through association Pavlov conducting research into salivation reflex in dogs' found they begun salivating before saw food at sound of door opening pavlov and classical conditioning Attachment - Classical conditioning Infant learns to associate feeding/comfort with primary carer/mother Mother acquires comforting properties by association TASK: Complete page 18 in your packs Food produces a sense of pleasure. The person who feeds becomes associated with the food. This association is the attachment bond.

2. Operant conditioning – learning through consequences Learning occurs when we are rewarded for doing something, making it a pleasurable experience and therefore more likely to repeat it.. Behaviour is reinforced Skinner and his pigeons Happens in everyday life! Attachment - Operant conditioning Infant learns that crying, smiling brings positive response from adults (reinforcement) Adult learns that responding to cries etc. brings relief from noise (negative reinforcement) Every time you do something it results in a pleasant consequence.

Dollard and Miller (1949) Attachment through operant conditioning Pg 19 in pks Attachment through operant conditioning Based on motivation – what drives behaviour Primary drives of hunger and thirst, person will be “driven” to seek food Obtaining food results in drive reduction Rewarding so likely to be repeated Association with caregiver becomes source of reward in itself. Mothers also become attached in same way reward is smile etc Cupboard love theory = combination of OC and CC

Learning Theory Main predictions: The child will form attachments on the basis of primary care provision (feeding etc.) Attachment behaviour should increase steadily from birth The strongest attachments will be with those who provide the most primary care TASK: 1 – complete a summary on the bottom of pg 19 2 - in pairs, consider the 3 pieces of research we have looked at and complete page 20 in your packs

Evaluation of Learning Theory – pg 21 Strengths T – We can test the theory by observation (scientific = reliable and objective) A - It can provide an adequate explanation of how attachments form. We do learn through association and reinforcement But L - Generally criticised for being over simplistic – ideas are too simple to explain complex human behaviour Criticisms of Learning Theory L - Main weakness is the role of food in attachment - Infants become attached to people who aren’t involved in caring and feeding them (Schaffer and Emerson 1964) C - Harlow's Monkeys (1959) – showed that comfort more important than food

Timed exam question Briefly evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment (4 marks) 2 PEE paragraphs: Strengths: Valid and scientific as founded in established theory, ie likely that association between the provision of needs and the person providing those needs can lead to strong attachments; reinforcers clearly defined Supportive evidence: Dollard & Miller (1950) – ample opportunity to form attachments in the 1st year Limitations: Reductionist – the focus on basic processes (S-R links, reinforcement) too simplistic to explain complex attachment behaviours Also, environmentally deterministic such that early learning determines later attachment behaviours; Theory founded in animal research and problems of inferring on the basis of animal studies Evidence refute the explanation: Schaffer and Emerson – more than half of infants were not attached to the person primarily involved in their physical care; Harlow – rhesus monkeys attach for contact comfort rather than food; infants are active seekers of stimulation, not passive responders (Schaffer)

Evolutionary Theory Natural Selection Question: What is meant by the term natural selection and can you explain how these terms might apply to attachment? Evolutionary Theory Bowlby takes an evolutionary perspective: He believes that infants are born with an innate tendency to form attachments in order to increase their chances of survival

Do NOT copy the slides… in your own words In your notes: Bowlby’s Theory A Snap Chat Makes Images Adaptive Social releasers Critical period Monotropy Internal working model Stretch yourself! Can you come up with a better acronym? There are five key words associated with Bowlby’s theory, including: adaptive, social releasers, critical period, monotropy and internal working model. Do NOT copy the slides… in your own words

Adaptive behaviours Behaviours necessary for evolution in populations Rooting – an infant’s head turns toward their cheek when stroked and sucking/swallowing reflexes follow, which allow the infant to take in nourishment. Other behaviours include: Breathing: an infant will move their arms and legs when something covers their face to protect their oxygen intake. Body temperature: infants can maintain their body temperatures by shivering and tucking their legs into their bodies to stay warm. To cool off, they will automatically push off blankets and decrease their movement. Feeding: the rooting (head turns toward cheek that is stroked), sucking and swallowing reflexes allow infants to take in nourishment. Breathing: the breathing reflex, hiccups, sneezes, and moving arms and legs when something is covering the face all protect an infant’s ability to get oxygen. Body temperature: infants can maintain their body temperatures by shivering, crying, and tucking their legs into their bodies to stay warm. To cool off, they will automatically push off blankets and decrease their movement.

Social releasers Babies have social releasers which ‘unlock’ an innate tendency in adults (in particular mothers) to care for them. These social releasers are both: Physical – the typical ‘baby face’ features and body proportions Behavioural – crying, cooing, smiling

Where have we already come across the critical period? Babies have to form an attachment with their caregiver during a critical period. This is between birth and 2½ years old. Bowlby said that if a child doesn’t form an attachment during this time then the child would be damaged socially, emotionally, intellectually and physically.

Monotropy Bowlby believed that infants form one very special attachment with their mother. This special, intense attachment is known as monotropy. If the mother isn’t available, the infant could bond with another ever-present adult mother-substitute.

Internal working model Through the monotropic attachment, the infant would form an Internal working model – cognitive schema This is a special model for relationships. All the child’s future adult relationships will be based on their early attachment relationship. Continuity Hypothesis – Link between early attachment relationships and later emotional development.

EVALUATION If baby didn’t have INNATE SOCIAL RELEASERS caregivers could easily ignore baby Doesn’t explain why infants become attached to certain people and not others Attachment forms because infants and caregivers interact Bowlby’s Theory still has had a profound influence on many aspects of everyday life –parenting programmes and dealing with separation.

Evidence Bowlby – infants have a hierarchy of attachments with mother at the top Shaffer and Emerson – stage theory one person first and then others. Fox (1977) children on a kibbutz cared for by nurse but most strongly attached to mother. Any more in your text books?

Summary of Evolutionary Theory Main hypotheses: Attachments will form with those who respond to child’s signals Attachment will correlate with other aspects of (biological) development There will be a special attachment figure that is more important than others Disruption of attachments will have developmental consequences Complete pgs 23+24 in your packs

Exam Question One theory about how and why babies form attachments is Bowlby’s monotropic theory. Outline and evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. (Total 8 marks)

Possible outline: Infants have an innate drive to survive Possible outline: Infants have an innate drive to survive. Babies seek proximity to carer (mother) for safety. Sequence of development – non-focused, one or more, signalling, safe base behaviour. Monotropy – this attachment is to a single specific caregiver. Babies use signals – social releasers to attract the carer-reciprocity. There is a critical (sensitive) period for attachment to take place (approx. up to 2 years). Possible evaluation points: Contrast with alternatives: eg learning theory states that attachment is based on reinforcement (cupboard love theory). A - Discussion in relation to continuity hypothesis – real life application S - Use of evidence to support Bowlby’s theory: eg animal evidence in favour of critical / sensitive period. C - Use of contradictory evidence: eg Schaffer and Emerson’s findings re multiple attachment

Comparing the 2 explanations When we evaluate a theory we have been using CASTLES – however, you also need to start considering the Issues and Debates in Psychology An easy way to remember / think of these are through GRENADE – see sheet When we compare explanations / theories we need to use issue and debates as well as methodologies used to make good evaluative points: See compare and contrast sheet to help