An Invitation to Marine Science, 7th Oceanography An Invitation to Marine Science, 7th Tom Garrison Chapter 2 History

Chapter 2 Study Plan Voyaging Combined with Science to Advance Ocean Studies The First Scientific Expeditions Were Undertaken by Governments Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of Modern Technology

Understanding the Ocean Began with Voyaging for Trade and Exploration Early Peoples Traveled the Ocean for Economic Reasons Ocean transportation offers people the benefits of mobility and greater access to food supplies. Any coastal culture skilled at raft building or small-boat navigation would have economic and nutritional advantages over less-skilled competitors. The first direct evidence we have of voyaging, traveling on the ocean for a specific purpose, comes from records of trade in the Mediterranean Sea. The Egyptians organized ship-borne commerce on the Nile River The first regular ocean traders were probably the Cretans, or the Phoenicians who inherited maritime supremacy in the Mediterranean after the destruction of the Cretan civilizations around 1200 b.c.e. Phoenicians traveled through the Strait of Gibraltar to markets as distant as Britain and the west coast of Africa.

Understanding the Ocean Began with Voyaging for Trade and Exploration A replica of a Greek ship from about 500 B.C.E. Such ships were used for trade to explore the Atlantic outside the Mediterranean.

Systematic Study of the Ocean Began at the Library of Alexandria The Greeks began to explore outside the Mediterranean into the Atlantic Ocean around 900–700 b.c.e. Cartographers, or chart makers, recorded information about locations and landmarks and currents. Today, charts are detailed graphic representations of water and water-related information. The Library at Alexandria, in Egypt, was founded in the 3rd century B.C. This library stored information on every area of human endeavor. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the second librarian at Alexandria. He was the first to calculate the circumference of Earth and also invented a system of longitude and latitude. The principles of celestial navigation were invented at the Library at Alexandria.

Eratosthenes Accurately Calculated the Size and Shape of Earth A diagram showing Eratosthenes’s technique for calculating the circumference of Earth. As described in the text, he used simple geometric reasoning based on the assumptions that Earth is spherical and that the sun is very far away. Using this method, he was able to discover the circumference of Earth to within about 8% of its true value.

Latitude and Longitude (LEFT) A third century B.C. chart showing the system of latitude and longitude developed by Eratosthenes. (RIGHT) Diagrams showing the calculation of lines of latitude and longitude.

Ocean Seafarers Colonized Distant Islands The Polynesian Triangle. Ancestors of the Polynesians spread from Southeast Asia or Indonesia to New Guinea and the Philippines by about 20,000 years ago. The mid-Pacific islands have been colonized for about 2,500 years, but the explosive dispersion that led to the settlement of Hawaii occurred about A.D. 450-600. The Polynesian colonization's are an example of knowledge of oceans and marine science used to colonize a vast number of islands. “Red Arrows” show a possible direction and order of settlement.

Viking Raiders Discovered North America A Viking ship from around A.D. 900. This painting is a reconstruction drawn from a ship found in 1880 at the bottom of a Norwegian fjord. Sturdy and intended for travel over open water, the ship is 23.3 meters (76 feet) long and 5.25 meters (17 feet) wide. Oarsmen sat on loose benches or chests, and holes for the oars could be covered by small disks so that water would not flow in when the ship heeled under sail.

The Chinese Undertook Organized Voyages of Discovery Chinese navigators set out in the 1400s to explore the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Africa and the Atlantic. Their ships were laden with gifts designed to show China’s wealth and degree of civilization. The Chinese invented the compass (lower left), the central rudder, water-tight compartments, and sails on multiple masts (lower right).

The European Age of Discovery Prince Henry of Portugal, the Navigator, looks westward from his monument in Portugal. In the mid-1400s, Henry established a center at Sagres for the study of marine science and navigation “. . . through all the watery roads.”

European Age of Discovery Europeans explored the world by sea during the Renaissance. Henry the Navigator – Explorers under his patronage compiled detailed charts and explored the west coast of Africa. Christopher Columbus – Although he never saw the mainland of North America, his stories inspired other explorers to follow. Ferdinand Magellan – Although Magellan died en route, the small surviving portion of his crew circumnavigated the globe.

European Age of Discovery The Waldseemüller Map, published in 1507 – the first map to name America and to show the New World as separate from Asia. This is an image of the only known copy to survive of the 1,000 printed from 12 wood blocks. It was purchased in 2007 by the U. S. Library of Congress for US$10,000,000.

Magellan Expedition The journey of the Magellan expedition, the first voyage around the world. Only 18 out of 260 sailors managed to return after three years of dangerous travel.

Voyaging Combined with Science to Advance Ocean Studies James Cook, a commander in the British Royal Navy, is credited with leading voyages that greatly contributed to scientific oceanography. Some of the accomplishments of James Cook and his scientists include: Verification of calculations of planetary orbits Charting of New Zealand and the Great Barrier Reef, Tonga and Easter Island Initiation of friendly relations with many native populations Sampling marine life, land plants and animals Recording data concerning the ocean floor and geological formations

The First Scientific Expeditions Were Undertaken by Governments The United States Exploring Expedition launched in 1838 was a naval and scientific expedition. The HMS Beagle, on which Charles Darwin served as a naturalist, voyaged to South America and some Pacific Islands. (BELOW) HMS Challenger expedition of 1872-1876 was the first oceanic expedition dedicated to scientific research.

Contemporary Oceanography Makes Use of Modern Oceanography What advances in oceanic exploration occurred in the twentieth century? Polar Exploration – explorers reached both the North and South poles in the twentieth century The Meteor Expedition – first expedition to use modern optical and electronic equipment for oceanographic investigation The Atlantis – investigations on this research vessel confirmed the presence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Trieste – a blimp-like bathyscaphe which descended into the Challenger Deep area of the Mariana Trench Glomar Challenger – samples obtained by scientists on this drilling ship provided confirming evidence for seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

Voyages for Science in the 20th Century What advances in oceanic exploration occurred in the 20th century? Polar Exploration – explorers reached both the North and South poles in the twentieth century The Meteor Expedition – first expedition to use modern optical and electronic equipment for oceanographic investigation The Atlantis – investigations on this research vessel confirmed the presence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Trieste – a blimp-like bathyscaphe which descended into the Challenger Deep area of the Mariana Trench Glomar Challenger – samples obtained by scientists on this drilling ship provided confirming evidence for seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

20th Century Voyages Contributed to Oceanographic Knowledge Echo sounders sense the contour of the seafloor by beaming sound waves to the bottom and measuring the time required for the sound waves to bounce back to the ship. If the round-trip travel time and wave velocity are known, distance to the bottom can be calculated. This technique was first used on a large scale by the German research vessel Meteor in the 1920s.

The Rise of Oceanographic Institutions Three of the most prominent oceanographic institutions in the United States: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Scripps Institution of Oceanography Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University

Chapter 2 Main Concepts The ocean did not prevent the spread of humanity. By the time European explorers set out to “discover” the world, native peoples met them at nearly every landfall. Any coastal culture skilled at raft building or small-boat navigation had economic and nutritional advantages over less-skilled competitors. Seafaring – voyaging – evolved as a way to maximize access to resources. Periods of extensive maritime exploration and the marine projection of political power by nations preceded systematic scientific investigation of the ocean. The three expeditions of Captain James Cook, British Royal Navy, were perhaps the first to apply the principles of scientific investigation to the ocean. The voyage of H.M.S. Challenger (1872-1876) was the first extensive expedition dedicated exclusively to research. Modern oceanography is guided by consortia of institutions and governments, not individuals on single expeditions.

Chapter 2 in Perspective In this chapter you learned that science and exploration have gone hand-in-hand. Voyaging for necessity evolved into voyaging for scientific and geographical discovery. The transition to scientific oceanography was complete when the Challenger Report was completed in 1895. The rise of the great oceanographic institutions quickly followed, and those institutions and their funding agencies today mark our path into the future. In the next chapter you will learn about Earth’s inner layers – layers that are density stratified. You will find these layers to be heavier and hotter as depth increases, and you’ll learn how we know what’s inside our planet even though we’ve never been past the outermost layer. As you will see, today’s earthquakes and volcanoes, and the slow movement of continents, are all remnants of our distant cosmological past.