Safety 2016 Barry Watson Lyndel Bates Gayle Di Pietro Cristina Inclan Enhancing road policing in LMICs through the identification of good practice principles

Overview The role of traffic law enforcement in road safety Road policing challenges experienced in LMICs Findings from a review of relevant theoretical concepts and models Principles to guide good practice road policing Priorities for the future

Role of traffic law enforcement Road safety agencies around the world rely heavily on traffic law enforcement to modify road user behavior Traffic law enforcement involves three processes: Setting of traffic laws eg. alcohol limits, speed limits On-road policing eg. breath testing, speed cameras Application of sanctions eg. fines, loss of licence It is most effective when it encourages community-wide compliance with road rules (and doesn’t just involve apprehending and punishing offenders)

The effectiveness of road policing A range of road policing programs have been shown to be effective around the world including: Seat belt enforcement Drink driving enforcement Manned and automatic speed enforcement Some approaches are more effective than others Need to adopt ‘good practice’ approaches to optimize safety benefits Criminological and psychological theories have informed the design of ‘good practice’ programs Source: Bates, Watson & Soole, 2012

Road policing challenges in LMICs Insufficient human resources devoted to road policing Insufficient technology and equipment to conduct breath testing, speed enforcement etc. Limitations in legislation e.g. police may not have power to randomly pull-over and/or breath test drivers Operations often focused on apprehension rather than deterrence Corruption is endemic in some places, leading to widespread punishment avoidance Difficult to achieve widespread, general deterrence Road policing is often held in low regard

Aim of project Method & Results Identify the theoretical principles underpinning good practice road policing to inform the design of capability- building initiatives in LMICs Method & Results Review of the traffic law enforcement literature focusing on relevant theories and concepts Two perspectives emerged as most useful: Deterrence Theory Procedural Justice

Deterrence theory (1) Criminological theory used to inform the design of traffic law enforcement programs like random breath testing and speed cameras Classical deterrence theory asserts that the effectiveness of a legal threat is a function of the perceived certainty, swiftness & severity of punishment Perceptions toward penalties are influenced by direct and indirect experience of punishment By way of introduction to deterrence theory, it is worth noting that road safety in Australia has featured the extensive use of traffic law enforcement programs,like as RBT, speed cameras and red light cameras. These programs have proven very effective in reducing the road toll and have been strongly influenced by deterrence theory. These programs have featured the strategic use of police resources to increase the public’s perceived risk of apprehension for breaking the law. Deterrence theory is a criminological theory which focuses on the effect of legal sanctions on controlling criminal behaviour. The traditional or classical form of this theory asserts that the effectiveness of a legal threat is related to the perceived certainty, severity, and swiftness of punishment. In practice, a key concern is the perceived risk of apprehension and punishment among potential law breakers. More recently, empathies has also been given to impact of punishment avoidance, not just punishment, on behaviour. For example, it has been suggested that getting away with an illegal behaviour, such as driving unlicensed, may do more to encourage the behaviour, than being punished does to discourage it. Sources: Homel, 1986, Vingilis, 1990

Deterrence theory (2) Specific deterrence General deterrence deterring traffic offenders through the fear of further punishment General deterrence deterring the general driving population by exposing them to the threat of apprehension (without necessarily punishing them) more widespread effect on the community Sources: Homel, 1986, Vingilis, 1990

Extended deterrence theory The influence of punishment avoidance “. . it is possible that punishment avoidance does more to encourage crime than punishment does to discourage it. Offenders whose experience is limited largely to avoiding punishment may come to believe that they are immune from punishment, even in the face of occasional evidence to the contrary” (Stafford & War, 1993, p.125)

The dynamic nature of deterrence Homel’s (1986) ‘Hole in the Bucket Model’

Good practice guidelines from deterrence theory research Road policing is most effective when it is unpredictable, unavoidable and ubiquitous Road policing operations need to be: Conducted in an intensive and sustained manner (to increase the public’s perceived risk of detection) As random in nature as possible (to maintain unpredictability) Utilise both highly visible operations (to promote general deterrence) and targeted operations (to reduce punishment avoidance) Supported by mass media and public education campaigns (to reinforce general deterrence)

Procedural Justice (1) Criminological perspective focusing on people’s perceptions toward police decision-making and their use of authority Stronger perceptions of procedural justice have been found to be associated with: Stronger perceptions of police legitimacy Greater cooperation with police Greater trust of police Lower recidivism Source: Bates (2014)

Procedural Justice (2) Limited research to date within the road policing field Emerging evidence suggests that procedurally just traffic interactions have positive impacts on both: Public perceptions toward the police and the enforcement activity, as well as behavioural intentions Police perceptions about the value and purpose of the activity Further work required to develop and evaluate procedurally just traffic policing operations, particularly in LMICs Source: Bates (2014)

Good practice guidelines from Procedural Justice research Road policing operations should be designed to optimise: Voice - enabling road users to communicate their perspective Neutrality - ensuring road policing decisions are based on the facts, not other factors Respect - ensuring road police demonstrate respect to the public Trustworthiness – ensuring road police demonstrate a concern for the welfare of the public Source: Bates (2014)

Conclusion Need to develop and evaluate strategies to enhance traffic law enforcement in LMICs targeting: Adoption of strong, evidence-based policies and laws Improvements to road policing policies and practices Implementation of effective offender management systems Road policing operations are more likely to be effective if they: Promote general deterrence, while minimizing punishment avoidance Are perceived to be procedurally fair

Dedicated to the sustainable reduction of road crash death and injury Dr Barry Watson Email: barry.watson@ifrc.org Tel.: +41 79 708 4763 Global Road Safety Partnership c/o International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies P. O. Box 372 17, chemin des Crêts CH-1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland Tel: +41 (0) 22 730 42 49 Fax: +41 (0) 22 733 03 95 E-mail: grsp@ifrc.org Website: www.grsproadsafety.org