(These are my “ironic-background” PowerPoint slides.) Fallacies, Pt. 1 (These are my “ironic-background” PowerPoint slides.)

Fallacy: Definition, Division A fallacy, generally speaking, is any mistake in reasoning. The focus for now is on fallacies that involve irrelevant premises.

Appeals to Emotion 1/15 Argument from Outrage: (said angrily) The [so-and-so’s] say that p! (implied conclusion) [Therefore, p is false.] Appeal to Emotion not necessarily fallacious. But generally fallacious to rely on emotion instead of rational appeal (pathos vs. logos).

Appeals to Emotion 2/15 The Argument from Outrage presents two distinct dangers. First: Do we really have a reason to be angry? Second: Is my anger over X affecting my judgment about p?

Appeals to Emotion 3/15 Do we really have a reason to be angry? Maybe Mr. X merely disagrees with me! Is my anger over X affecting my judgment about p? Is the fact that this guy behaves badly toward me affecting my reaction to his views?

Appeals to Emotion 4/15 N.B. Sometimes anger is appropriate! Saying something that angers someone is not a fallacy!

Appeals to Emotion 5/15 Special case of the Argument from Outrage: Scapegoating Blaming someone or some group for one’s problems Example: Suppose Mr. Sanchez gets a job for which I was also being considered. I might easily slide to: Mexicans are taking all the U.S. jobs! Or even to: We ought to send them all back to Mexico!

Appeals to Emotion 6/15 Scare Tactics: Scaring someone into doing something, esp. accepting some claim

Appeals to Emotion 7/15 Special Case of Scare Tactics: Argument by Force Threatening someone into accepting some claim It is a fallacy to accept such “arguments”, though it may be prudent to do so--or to fake it.

Appeals to Emotion 8/15 Scare Tactics cont. Fear can arise esp. over possible consequences of some action, even when there is no evidence that those consequences are likely. Example: If we do not invade Iran, the Iranians will develop nuclear weapons and use them to destroy the world.

Appeals to Emotion 9/15 Again, fear is sometimes appropriate! Saying something that frightens someone is not a fallacy!

Appeals to Emotion 10/15 Argument from Pity: Overestimating someone’s strengths because of pitying that person Example: Ms. Y has lived through war, has had close relatives die and barely has enough money to feed her children. Therefore, Ms. Y ought to win the scholarship we are offering. Being an instructor, I’ve encountered this argument a few times!

Appeals to Emotion 11/15 Argument from Envy: Overestimating someone’s weaknesses because of envying that person Example: Mr. F has no talents of his own. He has earned most of his money through his ex-wife.

Appeals to Emotion 12/15 Apple Polishing: Mistaking flattery for evidence for what the flatterers say

Appeals to Emotion 13/15 Guilt Trip Eliciting feelings of guilt in someone in order to get that person to do something (esp. to accept some claim). Example: Many Iraqi children are in mortal danger because of our actions. Therefore, we ought all to send them financial aid.

Appeals to Emotion 14/15 Wishful Thinking: Believing something because it would be a pleasant truth OR Disbelieving something because it would be an unpleasant truth

Appeals to Emotion 15/15 Others: Peer Pressure Groupthink Nationalism

Non-Emotional Fallacies 1/11 Red Herring: Introducing extraneous considerations in order to distract one’s opponent from the real issue Very common! Beware!

Non-Emotional Fallacies 2/11 Red Herrings can be found in debates on nearly every major issue of today.

Non-Emotional Fallacies 3/11 Gay Marriage: “Do you think gays should be permitted to marry?” “What people do in their bedrooms is not the State’s business!”

Non-Emotional Fallacies 4/11 Public Healthcare: “Should the State provide money for health services?” “That’s what the communists want!”

Non-Emotional Fallacies 5/11 Gun Control: “Should it be more difficult to purchase guns legally?” “Yes! Look at how much gang violence there is in this country!”

Non-Emotional Fallacies 6/11 Legalization of Drugs: “Should smoking marijuana be made legal?” “No! Marijuana can be very harmful to growing children!”

Non-Emotional Fallacies 7/11 Abortion: “Should the abortion of fetuses remain legal in this country?” “Abortion is the taking of a human life!”

Non-Emotional Fallacies 8/11 Appeal to Popularity: Mistaking the popularity of a belief for evidence of its truth Not fallacious when those to whom the appeal is made are experts! Two important subkinds: Appeal to Common Practice Appeal to Tradition

Non-Emotional Fallacies 9/11 Appeal to Common Practice: Mistaking the popularity of a practice for justification of it Examples: Speeding Cigarette Butts/Littering

Non-Emotional Fallacies 10/11 Appeal to Tradition: Mistaking the long pedigree of a practice for justification of it

Non-Emotional Fallacies 11/11 Two Wrongs Make a Right: Distinguish from the Philosophical Position of Retributivism!