Based on the article “Teaching Grammar in Context” by David Nunan Grammar Metaphors Based on the article “Teaching Grammar in Context” by David Nunan © 2016 by World Learning. Grammar Metaphors PPT for the AE E-Teacher Program, sponsored by the U.S. Department of State and administered by FHI 360. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, except where noted. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

In this presentation, we will further explore grammar learning and grammar teaching with the help of metaphors. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Why metaphors? 'Metaphor' comes from the Greek word metapherein, meaning 'to transfer‘. A metaphor is a word or phrase used to compare two unlike objects, phenomena or feelings to provide a clearer description. What is transferred in this comparison is meaning: the well-understood meaning of one word is brought into connection with a concept or an idea that is not so clear. Ex. My teacher is a dragon. “Dragon Spitting Fire” designed by Freepik via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Metaphors help us describe the world around us in a clearer manner and help us see a familiar concept or an idea in a different light. Also, they help us make sense of something that is complex. For example, the brain is a spider web. This is a good metaphor for the brain because it is delicate, minimal, hypersensitive, and connects many things. It responds instantly and simultaneously to outside events. “Lineal Brain design” designed by Harryarts via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Learning grammar is also something very complex Learning grammar is also something very complex. Metaphors offer a great way to help create images for others to present complex second language learning theories and research results. “Students in class set” designed by Freepik via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Using Metaphors to Aid Understanding STRONG AS AN OX CLEVER AS A FOX BEAR HUG NIGHT OWL In this PowerPoint, we will present two models of language learning and two ways of teaching grammar with the help of metaphors. These metaphors will help us gain a better understanding why certain teaching approaches don’t work, and why certain grammar activities are more likely to help students become fluent and accurate speakers of English. “Animal icons collection” designed by katemangostar via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Ready? Let’s start! Think about the following statement: Students acquire one grammar structure at a time. They should demonstrate that they have learned that structure well before they move on to the next. For example, a student should master one tense form such as the simple present, before being introduced to other tense forms, such as the present continuous, or the simple past. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

What would be a good metaphor for learning a language by this method? Brick wall “Metaphorically, learning another language by this method is like constructing a wall. The language wall is built one linguistic ‘brick’ at a time. The easy grammatical bricks are laid at the bottom of the wall, providing a foundation for the more difficult ones. The task for the learner is to get the linguistic bricks in the right order: first the word bricks, and then the sentence bricks. If the bricks are not in the correct order, the wall will collapse.” Nunan, 1998: 101 “Red brick wall background” designed by Freepik via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Sounds logical? Yes, but… Language is not acquired in the step-by-step, building block fashion: students master a grammar structure, but not perfectly. Although they may know, say, the Present Simple Tense, they continue making mistakes when using it. This happens because language learning is not linear; it is more like a ‘u-shape’ curve than a straight line. V This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

What would be a better metaphor for language learning then? Organic garden Here’s why: “Learners do not learn one thing perfectly, one at a time, but numerous things simultaneously (and imperfectly). The linguistic flowers do not all appear at the same time, nor do they all grow at the same rate. Some even appear to wilt, for a time, before renewing their growth.” Nunan, 1998: 102 “Garden” by Tejvan Pettinger via Flickr licensed under CC BY 2.0 This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

What is the relevance of this for practice? In textbooks, grammar is very often presented out of context. Learners are given isolated sentences, which they are expected to learn through exercises involving repetition, manipulation, and grammatical transformation. They may learn grammar, but this knowledge does not help them to speak or write in English. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

So… Learners should be given opportunities to explore grammar in context. They should use language in order to learn it. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

What does that mean? Let’s check your understanding. The teacher asks students to read a set of sentences in the active voice, and them transform these into passives following a model. Is this the organic or brickwall approach? This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Brickwall! Learners are taught about the forms of the passive voice; however, they are not taught that passive forms are used to achieve certain communicative ends - to avoid referring to the performer of the action, for instance. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

To conclude, grammar instruction will be more effective in classrooms where: Students are exposed to authentic samples of language. They should encounter the target grammatical features in a range of different linguistic and experiential contexts. The teacher should not assume that once students have practiced a particular form they have acquired it. Drilling is only a first step towards eventual mastery. The teacher should provide many opportunities for recycling of language forms and engage students in tasks that help them clearly see the links between form, meaning, and use. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Students should develop their own understandings of the grammatical principles of English through inductive learning experiences which encourage them to explore the functioning of grammar in context. Over time, students should encounter target language items in an increasingly diverse and complex range of linguistic and experiential environments. Nunan, 1998: 108 This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Form-focused exercises Does this mean that dialogues, drills, and deductive presentations by the teacher have no place in the grammar class? Form-focused exercises Use-focused tasks No! According to David Nunan, what we need is an appropriate balance between exercises that help learners come to grips with grammatical forms, and tasks for exploring the use of those forms to communicate effectively. This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Does this mean that bricks to be avoided? Not necessarily! There’s a way to combine bricks and gardens: “Up the wall” by Andre Hofmeister via Flickr licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 “wall” by sparkleice via Flickr licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

But… Beware of “Brick wall” designed by kues via Freepik licensed under Freepik Terms of Use This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning

Reference Nunan, David (1998) “Teaching Grammar in Context”. In: ELT Journal, 52/2, 101-109. http://www.lenguasvivas.org/campus/files/0_48/teachinggrammarinco ntext.pdf This is a program of the U.S. Department of State administered by FHI 360 and delivered by World Learning