Part 4 Reading Critically Chapter 11 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments

The critical reader must be able to evaluate arguments. When you evaluate an argument (a set of claims), you determine its value or persuasiveness. To be able to do a good job evaluating arguments, you need to know what an argument is and how an argument is put together.

An argument is a claim that is supported by reasons or evidence. When an author tries to persuade the reader that something is true or correct by presenting supporting reasons or evidence, an argument is being made.   This means that an argument is different from a statement.

The author is trying to convince the reader that a claim is true by giving supporting reasons or evidence.   Arguments can be broken down into their parts. The parts of an argument are the assumptions, the premises, and the conclusion.

The assumptions of an argument support the conclusion but they are not stated in the argument. Assumptions tie the premises to the conclusions. They are claims that lie in the background of the argument that make the argument work.

To find the assumptions behind an argument, ask yourself what is left unstated in the argument that must be true for it to work. The premises of an argument are the reasons or evidence that the author presents to support the conclusion. The premises of an argument are often introduced by words such as “since” or “because.”

The conclusion of an argument is the claim that is the point of the argument. When an author makes an argument, it’s the conclusion that the author is trying to persuade the reader to accept as true. The premises and assumptions in an argument are there to support the conclusion.

The conclusion of an argument is often introduced by words such as “accordingly,” “consequently,” or “thus.”

To evaluate an argument, you need to analyze it.   When you analyze an argument, you break it down into its parts and examine them by themselves and in relation to the other parts of the argument.

Steps for analyzing an argument. First, identify the argument’s conclusion (claim). What is the conclusion the author is trying to persuade the reader to accept as true? What is the point of the argument?

Steps for analyzing an argument. Second, identify the assumptions that the argument makes.   Third, identify the premises (reasons or evidence) that the author puts forth in support of the conclusion.

Steps for analyzing an argument. Fourth, think critically and skeptically about the premises (reasons or evidence) that the argument presents and the assumptions that the argument makes. Are the premises true? Do the assumptions defeat or weaken the argument?

Steps for analyzing an argument. Fifth, ask yourself how well the premises and assumptions support the conclusion. If the premises are weak or false, then the argument will be less persuasive or even invalid. If the assumptions defeat or weaken the argument, the argument will be less persuasive or even invalid.

Logical fallacies are ways of arguing or reasoning that may seem to make sense but actually do not. They often seek to manipulate by appealing to emotion. The name of each fallacy indicates the particular error in reasoning that has occurred. Propaganda often makes use of logical fallacies. This is why there are similarities between propaganda devices and logical fallacies.

An Introduction to Logical Fallacies Faulty Cause and Effect (post hoc, ergo propter hoc) The Latin meaning, “after this, therefore because of this,” suggests that because B follows A, A must cause B. Just because two events or two sets of data are sequential does not necessarily mean that one caused the other.

2. Non sequitur (“it does not follow”) A non sequitur occurs when the conclusion of an argument does not follow from its premises. 3. Begging the Question This fallacy occurs when you assume as true what you are trying to prove. 4. Circular Logic This fallacy occurs when the conclusion restates the information presented as evidence.

5. Hasty generalization In this fallacy, the conclusion is based on a sample that is too small.

6. Either/or fallacy (or false dilemma) This is a fallacy of “black-and-white thinking”: only two choices are given, and there are no shades of gray. People who exhibit this type of thinking have a “bumper sticker” mentality; they say things like “America—love it or leave it!”

 7. False Analogy In this fallacy, two things that may not really be similar are portrayed as being similar. In most false analogies, there is simply not enough evidence available to support the comparison.   8. Ad hominem argument (argument against the man) This fallacy involves an attempt to discredit an argument by attacking the person making it.

9. Ad populum argument (argument to the people) This kind of argument seeks to win agreement by making an appeal to common prejudices, values, and emotions. It does not rely on facts or reasoning. A common form of ad populum is an appeal to patriotism. At its extreme, ad populum relies on “mob appeal.”

10. Red herring This fallacy involves directing attention away from a debatable point to one that most people will quickly agree with. The name of this fallacy comes from the fact that if an uncooked herring (which has a strong scent) is dragged across the trail of an animal (or person) that dogs are tracking, the dogs will abandon the original scent and follow the scent of the herring. A red herring argument is meant to distract from the issue at hand.

11. Slippery Slope This fallacy assumes that taking a first step down a path will necessarily to later steps. If we let X happen, the next thing you know Y will happen. The image is one of a boulder rolling uncontrollably down a steep hill. The boulder can’t be stopped until it reaches the very bottom.

Study Technique # 9 Venn Diagram A Venn diagram is an illustration that shows similarities and differences between topics. • Advocated Declaration of Independence • Wrote Declaration of Independence • Died on the same day • Both denounced slavery • From Massachusetts • From Virginia Jefferson Adams

Chapter 11 Test Taking Tip— Key Words That Often Appear in Essay Questions   Following is a list of key words that often appear in essay questions. If you are going to write a good answer to an essay question that uses one of these terms, you need to know what the term means.

Analyze to break down the subject into parts and discuss each part. You will want to discuss how the parts relate to each other.   Comment on to discuss or explain Compare to show differences and similarities, but with the emphasis on similarities Contrast to show differences and similarities, but with the emphasis on differences

Criticize The narrow meaning of criticize is to examine something for its weaknesses, limitations, or failings. Does the theory, article, or opinion make sense? If not, why not? In a more general sense, criticize means to find both strengths and weaknesses. In this sense, the meaning of criticize is similar to the meaning of evaluate.   Define to state the meaning of a term, theory, or concept. You will want to place the subject in a category and explain what makes it different from other subjects in the category.

Describe to explain what something is or how it appears. You will need to draw a picture with words. Diagram to make a chart, drawing, or graph. You will also want to label the categories or elements, and maybe provide a brief explanation. Discuss to go over something fully. You will want to cover the main points, give different perspectives, and discuss strengths and weaknesses.

Enumerate to make a list of main ideas by numbering them Evaluate to examine for strengths and weaknesses. You will need to give specific evidence and may wish to cite authorities to support your position.