Using Rhetoric

What is rhetoric? The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. [American Heritage College Dictionary] “Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” [Aristotle]

What is Rhetoric? What is said (message) Who is saying it (speaker) Who is listening (audience) Where / when it is being said (context, appeals) Why it is being said (purpose) How it is being said (tone, style)

Speaker Audience Message When a rhetor (speaker) begins to consider how to compose a speech, he/she must take into account 3 elements: the message, the audience, and the speaker. Speaker Audience Message

Speaker The writer/speaker uses: who they are, what they know and feel, and what they’ve seen and done to find their attitudes toward a subject and their understanding of audience.

The Author / Speaker Gender / racial / geographical/ socioeconomic/ political orientation of author Author Bias / hidden agenda Other important biographical information may affect text

Audience The writer/speaker: speculates about audience expectations and knowledge of subject, and uses own experience and observation to help decide on how to communicate with audience.

The Audience Are they friend or foe? (hostile or sympathetic) How will they receive the message? How will they affect tone? style? Who is the intentional audience? Who is the unintentional audience? Over time, does the message/effect of the message change as the audience changes?

Message The writer/speaker: evaluates what he/she knows already and needs to know, investigates perspectives (researches), and determines kinds of evidence or proofs seem most useful (supports assertions with appropriate evidence).

The Message What is the main point being made? In other words, what is the writer’s / speaker’s thesis? Look at the message as an argument / position being sold to the audience. What is the author trying to convince the audience of?

The Message Consider this when trying to identify the exact message: What is the topic (1-2 words) about which the piece is written? What is the most important aspect or perspective about that topic that the author wants you to understand? What, exactly, does the author want the reader to think/do/feel/say? What is the “no” on the other side of the author’s “yes?” (And vice versa)

Appeals The writer/speaker uses different approaches to influence the audience’s attitude toward the subject. These are: Logos Ethos Pathos

Logos The writer/speaker: offers clear, reasonable premises and proofs, develops ideas with appropriate details, and makes sure readers can follow the progression of ideas.

Ethos The writer/speaker uses it when: he/she demonstrates that they are credible, good-willed, & knowledgeable and he/she connects their thinking to the reader’s own ethical or moral beliefs. Audiences and speakers should assume the best intentions and most thoughtful search for truths.

Pathos The writer/speaker: draws on emotions and interests of readers and highlights those emotions using 1) personal stories and observations to provoke audience’s sympathetic reaction and 2) figurative language to heighten emotional connections.

“Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country.” John F. Kennedy calls attention to ethical qualities of the speaker and listener (ethos) proposes a solution to the country’s problems by enlisting the citizens’ help (logos) calls forth emotional patriotism (pathos)

Purpose The author’s reason for writing is called the purpose of a selection. Three common purposes for writing: To inform—to give information about a subject. Example: “Eating food between two slices of bread—a sandwich— is a practice that has its origins in eighteenth-century England.” To persuade—to convince the reader to agree with the author’s point of view on a subject. Example: “There are good reasons why every sandwich should be made with whole-grain bread.” To entertain—to amuse and delight; to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination. Example: “What I wanted was a midnight snack, but what I got was better—the biggest, most magical sandwich in the entire world.”

Tone A writer’s tone reveals the attitude he or she has toward a subject. Tone is expressed through the words and details the writer selects. Just as a speaker’s voice can project a range of feelings, a writer’s voice can project one or more tones: anger, sympathy, hopefulness, sadness, respect, dislike, and so on. Understanding tone is, then, an important part of understanding what an author has written.

Tone What is the author’s attitude about his / her subject / message? What words in the message let you know the tone? How does the selection of the tone affect the audience’s reception of the message? Is it appropriate for the occasion/subject matter?

How Tone Works Here are four different versions of a murder confession. To appreciate the differences in tone that writers can use, read them aloud—in the tone of voice appropriate in each case. “I just shot my husband five times in the chest with this .357 Magnum.” (Tone: matter-of-fact, objective.) “How could I ever have killed him? I just can’t believe I did that!” (Tone: shocked, disbelieving.) “Oh, my God. I’ve murdered my husband. How can I ever be forgiven for this dreadful deed?” (Tone: guilty, regretful.) “That dirty rat. He’s had it coming for years. I’m glad I finally had the nerve to do it.” (Tone: revengeful, self-satisfied.)

Tone Zealous Apathetic Reticent Condescending Conciliatory Complimentary Remorseful Resigned Nostalgic Self-Deprecating Detached Haughty Sardonic Sarcastic Irreverent

A Note on Irony One commonly used tone—in conversation as well as in writing— is irony. When writing has an ironic tone, it says one thing but means the opposite. After seeing a terrible performance in a movie, someone might say about the actor involved, “Now there’s a person with a great chance for an Oscar.” While standing in a long, slow line at a supermarket or bank, you might say to people in line with you, “My, this is exciting.” If a friend arrives at your place two hours late, you might say, “Well, thanks for showing up on time.” If you’re suffering from the flu and someone asks how you feel, you might say: “I feel terrific today.” In each example, what the person says is the opposite of what is meant.