‘Things cannot be understood in isolation…’ Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), linguist Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-2009), anthropologist Roland Barthes (1915-1980), literary critic Structuralism ‘Things cannot be understood in isolation…’

Structuralism Take a well-known media text. Let’s say, The Dark Knight (2011). A structuralist would argue that The Dark Knight cannot be fully understood without knowledge of the history of the many Batman movies, and in turn, the comic book in which the character originated.

Structuralism Take a well-known media text. Let’s say, The Dark Knight (2011). In turn, comic book heroes can’t be understood in isolation – we must recognise Batman as one of many superheroes in the Marvel and DC Universe.

Structuralism Take a well-known media text. Let’s say, The Dark Knight (2011). Furthermore, we must understand comic books as having certain characteristics different from other literature, such as children’s books, graphic novels or video games.

Structuralism The Dark Knight Comic Books DC Comics Children’s literature Comic Books Graphic Novels DC Comics Batman & Robin (1960s TV show) Marvel Video Games Christopher Nolan’s Batman series Batman Forever Animated Batman (1990s TV series) The Dark Knight New Batman & Robin (1990s revival) Batman Begins

Structuralism These are all just some of the cultural structures that seem to take us further and further away from our original text – The Dark Knight (2011).

Structuralism So, structuralists say that the meaning of a text is not contained within it, but in the cultural relationships surrounding and connecting it. The focus is not on the text itself, but on the larger, abstract structures than contain them.

Structuralists consider: Structuralism Structuralists consider: Genre Over-arching narrative Source text Style influences Stock characters Binary opposites Recurring themes Text’s position in the series of sequels/prequels/spin-offs Adaptations Text’s position within director’s previous work Text’s position within actor’s previous work

Structuralism Task Choose a media text. Draw its network of cultural structures, like I have done for The Dark Knight.

The structure of language and the relationships of meaning Saussure The structure of language and the relationships of meaning

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Swiss linguist and semiotician His ideas laid the foundation for many significant developments in linguistics and semiotics. He wasn’t described as a structuralist, but the structuralists of the 1950s would consider him the father of their theories.

What does the word ‘hut’ mean to you? Is there any reason why those particular three letters – ‘h’, ‘u’ and ‘t’ – and the sound they produce, make us think of an image of a small dwelling? No, it is an arbitrary association.

The word ‘hut’, for instance, is not in any way appropriate to its meaning. The meaning of the word ‘hut’ is maintained by convention only.

So, Saussure said that the meaning attached to all words are arbitrary; they are there only by convention. Discuss: Can you think of a type of word that might be an exception?

He said that the minor exception to this is the small group of words called onomatopoeia – words created out of the sound that something makes. However, not even these are fixed, because they vary between languages…

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia

So, if a word’s association to its meaning is just random, then language isn’t a reflection of the world, but a completely different system altogether.

Saussure also emphasised that the meanings of words are relational Saussure also emphasised that the meanings of words are relational. That is to say, no word can be defined in isolation from other words. For example, the word ‘hut’ depends on its position in a chain of other words for it to be understood.

Task Fill in the gaps in the chain: Shed Hut House Mansion Palace

So, we define a word such as ‘mansion’ by explaining its position between the two words either side of it. Shed Hut House Mansion Palace

One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter c One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter What is meant by this statement? Can you think of any similar statements?

So, finally, Saussure stated that meaning does not exist within the word itself. Meaning is applied by experiencing an object/concept and labelling it with a word based on your own previous experiences.

Another example is colour. The words for colours ‘make’ a reality Another example is colour. The words for colours ‘make’ a reality. The spectrum isn’t divided into 7 colours. They all merge into one another. We just label useful points on that spectrum.

In summary: Meanings attached to words are only arbitrary In summary: Meanings attached to words are only arbitrary The meaning of words can only be understood in relation to other words Meaning does not exist within the word itself – we apply our own labels to experiences

Structuralists found Saussure’s distinctions useful because they showed that the meaning of a text doesn’t exist within itself. It must be understood in relation to the structures surrounding and connecting it.

Task Can you find any flaws in Saussure’s argument?

Structuralism and Binary Opposition Claude Levi-Strauss Structuralism and Binary Opposition

Claude Levi-Strauss Task Connect the binary opposites to each other...

Claude Levi-Strauss Levi-Strauss was a French anthropologist - now considered one of the ‘fathers of anthropology’- who in the 1950s developed some of Saussure’s theories into what is called Structuralism.

Claude Levi-Strauss Levi-Strauss studied hundreds of myths and legends around the world, as well as modern texts such as Hollywood Westerns.

Claude Levi-Strauss ...binary opposites. He said that as humans, we make sense of the world, people and events by seeing and using... ...binary opposites.

“all narratives are arranged around the conflict of binary opposites.” Claude Levi-Strauss This structuralist idea is also an important narrative theory, because he said: “all narratives are arranged around the conflict of binary opposites.”

Claude Levi-Strauss Just like Saussure, who said words can only be understood in relation to the words around them, so Levi-Strauss said that narratives can only be understood by a conflict of opposing ideas (an idea on its own is not enough).

Corruption vs Fairness Government vs The Masses Claude Levi-Strauss So, in a film such as The Dark Knight (2011), we can see the following binary opposites: Good vs Evil Madness vs Sanity Greed vs Charity Night vs Day Law vs Criminality Corruption vs Fairness Past vs Present Government vs The Masses

Claude Levi-Strauss Task Choose a film or TV show you enjoyed recently Write a list of all the binary opposites you can for it Try to be more original than simply ‘Good vs Evil’

Roland Barthes Narrative Codes

Texts are like a ball of string Roland Barthes was a 1950s/60s French semiologist; basically he was paid to look at ‘texts’ and decipher how they were put together. If you imagine a text is like a ball of string; can it be unravelled in one way or in many ways?

Open or Closed? All you need to know, very basically, is that texts may be 'open' (i.e. unravelled in a lot of different ways) or 'closed' (there is only one obvious thread to pull on). Barthes also decided that the threads you pull on to unravel meaning are called narrative codes and that they could be categorised in the following five ways:

The 5 Narrative Codes Action code - applies to any action that implies a further narrative action. Example: We see a gunslinger draw his gun on an enemy and we wonder what the resolution of this action will be.

The 5 Narrative Codes Enigma code - refers to any element in a story that is not explained and, therefore, exists as an enigma for the audience, raising questions that demand answers. Example: We see a hooded figure pour poison into a bowl of soup – raising the enigma of who the murderer might be.

The 5 Narrative Codes The cultural code - any element in a narrative that refers to what is considered common knowledge. In other words, the cultural codes tend to point to our shared knowledge about the way the world works. Example: Santa Claus is part of our culture and might appear in many different media texts.

The 5 Narrative Codes The semic code - any element in a text that suggests a particular, often additional meaning by way of connotation. Example: A shot focusing on a rope might suggest that someone will be tied up later, or that the plot itself is complex.

The 5 Narrative Codes The symbolic code – an extension of the semic code. When semic codes combine they form symbols, which often give a text its theme. Example: images of starving children, trench warfare and atom bomb explosions combine to give us the theme of apocalypse. This links to Levi-Strauss’ binary opposites.

The 5 Narrative Codes Narrative Action code Enigma code Cultural code You are going to watch an advert for Apple... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNnX6XRQBec During the screening you need to make notes on the following headings: Narrative (is it open or closed?) Action code Enigma code Cultural code Semic code Symbolic code Audience

Now answer this question Q: How are Mac and PC represented in the advert? Explain your answer referring to Roland Barthes’ narrative codes theory. Try to also identify the ideology behind the advert.

Ideology An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things, a belief which helps explain the world around us.