R.C.Tripathi University of Allahabad March 18, 2016 Construction of the other: Towards understanding violence in Indian society R.C.Tripathi University of Allahabad March 18, 2016

Problematic Societies around the world, continue to be violent. India is no exception. The last century was most violent. Identity contestations and psychological construction of the other are at the core of violence. The challenge is to develop societies that care and enfold and support positive interdependence so that humans may realize their true potentials. Just as roots of violence lie in cultures, roots of peace too are found in cultures. Pluralist societies have achieved this through sharing of cultural practices and participation in collective rituals of each other creates conditions of collective effervescence which binds people.

Violence and its form Violence is an intentional act which impedes human self realization, according to Galtung. It can be seen at the individual, interpersonal and intergroup levels. Among its various forms are physical, structural psychological, emotional, social, cultural, political, and spiritual violence.

Communal riots in the last 5 years (average 58 per month)

Perspectives on Violence Violence has roots in economic, political, social, and psychological bases. Each kind manifests itself differently and at different levels. There are, however, no pure cases. Three perspectives are often used to explain violence between groups - - primordialism- it is natural based on attachment to primary groups; hatred transmitted from one generation to another - instrumentalism- political, economic ends served. Political elites use it to serve their ends. - constructivism- interpretation of historical events used to develop new cognitive schemas

Contd- Psychological perspectives: - Prejudice - Frustration- Aggression - Realistic conflict - Social identity - Relative deprivation - Social dominance Violence has co-dependent origination; there is mutual causation Identity is central to all contestations Identities are layered, interact at multiple levels, often simultaneously. No singular experience of identity.

Identity contestations Take place for- - control of resources - social recognition - reasons of social dominance - moral reasons, e.g., justice Purpose of contestation - to limit or deny occupation of economic, social, political, and cultural space sharing Other comes to be created in this process

Psychological construction of the other Human minds function on the basis of differentiation and categorization resulting in the creation of in- and out-groups. Creation of the other involves two processes- of ascription of values, norms, beliefs and practices made to the other group and inscription involving internalization of values, beliefs and practices as belonging to own group Other is someone who cannot be accessed from the schema of self because they are morally excluded and stigmatized; it is what self never desires to be. Other as a product comes to be created thru processes involving stereotyping, prejudice, culturism and essentialism.

The process of othering Othering involves exclusion on various grounds. other may be seen as threat to power, as a polluting agent and, therefore, an object of hate. Other is stigmatized. Othered person/group is ascribed negative attributes and condemned to lower rungs of social hierarchy. Deutsch discusses 3 mechanisms of othering- (i) othering through oppression eg., colonization (ii) othering through generation of virtuous selves (iii) defensive othering- accepting devalued identity Identity denial- Individual is not seen as a member of an ingroup, for example denied national identity. (ex. when NE people are asked where are you from or Muslims asked to go to Pakistan.

Bases of otherness Purity is used as the basis of otherness in almost all religions. Holocaust is seen as an act of ‘cleansing’ through the elimination of the sinful jews. ‘Crusades’ and ‘Jihad’ are also seen in the same light. Purity is also central to the Hindu caste system. Human body, particularly of woman is considered a site of impurity across cultures. Ideology is a special kind of motivated social cognition (Jost et al, 2003) . fMRI studies show this. Ideologies drive the political discourses of secularism, multiculturalism, fundamentalism (both left and right), etc., and social, economic and political actions that ensue from them.Ideologies create minds- secular, mono or multicultural

Building blocks of intergroup conflicts Naïve realism-things are as we see them Intergroup cognition- differentiation and categorization; intergroup biases Intergroup emotion- fear, anxiety, anger and hatred Violence as mimetic desire- humans imitate desires of other humans; compete to fulfil them

Dynamics of intergroup/ethnic conflict (Norm Violation Theory) 12

Dynamics of conflict (contd.) It is not necessary that the norms that are violated should be group norms. They could well be universal norms, e.g., related with civil or human rights. If there is history of prior violations, reaction to a new norm violation will be contingent on how how the norms and emotions are interpreted by cognitive and emotional schema. An emotional schema is modes of responses and feelings associated with an analogous event; these could be individual specific or culture specific. Emotional schemas carry with them feelings as well as reactions. De-escalation of conflicts is possible through norms of respect. Owngroup norm violation leads to black-sheep effect resulting in greater punishment

Modes of conflict resolutions and unothering Changing ideologies of the state- Secularism, Multiculturalism, Human rights Reduction of prejudice- Abolish categories Increasing Intergroup contacts; Intergroup dialogue Development of superordinate goals Development of common ingroup identity Finding ways to dissolve the other- through reconciliation- forgiveness, perspective taking and norms of respect Developing caring communities which are high on the needs of transcendence(Staub) .

Methods of Resolution of inter-group conflicts

Structural Interest Cognitive Emotional Core Concerns Distribution of power & resources Built-in structural inequalities Interests Goals Objectives Beliefs Schemas Frames Fear Loss & grief Rage Pathology Justice Integration or Compromise Reframing Healing Conflict Management Techniques Revolution Redistribution Deconstruction Negotiation Mediations Bargaining Win-Win Facilitated Contact Truth-Telling Public Acknowledgement Forgiveness

Some final thoughts Berry’s acculturation model suggests 4 strategies that groups use in relating with others- Accomodation, assimilation, integration and marginalization; A fifth style suggested is coexistence. This model is based on composite culture. Composite culture which involves celebrating plurality and freely borrowing practices from other groups will help build bridges of peace. Plural cultures with composite cultures will shun strong tit or tat reactions. They will support steps taken for distributive and restorative justice. Their reactions will always be positive because of sharing of cultural practices.

लकीरें हैं तो रहने दो, किसी ने रूठ के, गुस्से में खींच दी थी/ इन्हींको बनाओ पाला, और आओ कबड्डी खेलते हैं मैं तुम्हें पकडूं, लपेटूँ, और वापस न जाने दूँ /

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