Engineering Materials and Processes Lecture 12 – The heat-treatment of plain-carbon steels Prescribed Text: Ref 1: Higgins RA & Bolton, 2010. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 5th edition, Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN: 9781856177696 Readings: Callister: Callister, W. Jr. and Rethwisch, D., 2010, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 8th Edition, Wiley, New York. ISBN 9780470419977 Ashby 1: Ashby, M. & Jones, D., 2011, Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to Properties, Applications and Design, 4th edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford UK. IBSN: 9780080966656 Ashby 2: Ashby, M. & Jones, D., 2011, Engineering Materials 2: An Introduction to Microstructures and Processing, 4th edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford UK. IBSN: 9780080966687   Lecture (2 hrs): Ref 1, Ch 1: Engineering materials; Ref 1 Ch 2: Properties of materials. Laboratory 1 (2 hrs): Hardness test Callister: Ch 1, 2, 18-21 Ashby 1: Ch 1, 2 Ashby 2: Ch 1 High Carbon Steel is used in springs http://cnhuaxing.en.made-in-china.com 1

The heat-treatment of plain-carbon steels Reference Text Section Higgins RA & Bolton, 2010. Materials for Engineers and Technicians, 5th ed, Butterworth Heinemann Ch 12 Additional Readings Section Engineering Materials and Processes

Note: This lecture closely follows text (Higgins Ch12) The heat-treatment of plain-carbon steels Note: This lecture closely follows text (Higgins Ch12) Engineering Materials and Processes

Principles of hardening (Higgins 12.2) If a piece of steel containing sufficient carbon is heated until its structure is austenitic - that is, until its temperature is above the upper critical temperature - and is then quenched, i.e. cooled quickly, it becomes considerably harder than it would be were it cooled slowly. There is insufficient time for the formation of Pearlite, so a new type of grain forms: Martensite. This is also a BCC structure. Martensite is a very hard grain structure. Engineering Materials and Processes

VIDEO: Crystals and Grain Structure 1. What is a grain? BBC (1973) 2. Recrystallisation Part 3: Heat Treatment Steel grains are too small to be visible - need a microscope approx 250 times magnification. Ferrite: Light coloured. Made of iron. Gives ductility to the steel Pearlite: darker coloured. Layers of Iron + Iron Carbide. Hardness and strength to the steel. 100% Pearlite: 0.83%C. Recrystallisation temperature 723C. Eutectic alloy. Normalising - cooled in air, grain size reduced and more uniform shape, toughness increased  due to smaller grains Quenching - increases hardness. Not enough time for pearlite to form, so a needle like structure forms - martensite. Very hard and brittle. Tempering - (after quenching) restores toughness. Modifies the martensite needles with small flakes of carbon. This gives keeps most hardness, adds toughness. 0.1%C steel (Mild Steel). Recrystallisation 900C. Not enough carbon to produce martensite. Engineering Materials and Processes 5

Principles of hardening (Higgins 12.2) If a piece of steel containing sufficient carbon is heated until its structure is austenitic - that is, until its temperature is above the upper critical temperature - and is then quenched, i.e. cooled quickly, it becomes considerably harder than it would be were it cooled slowly. There is insufficient time for the formation of Pearlite, so a new type of grain forms: Martensite. This is also a BCC structure. Martensite is a very hard grain structure. Engineering Materials and Processes

Principles of hardening (Higgins 12.2) See Higgins Fig 12.1 (i) Martensite: Water quenching of 0.5% C steel an irregular mass of needle-shaped crystals. Actually the crystals are discuss-shaped, and the needles are cross-sections of these discs. Water Quenched: Martensite http://pwatlas.mt.umist.ac.uk Martensite Engineering Materials and Processes 7

Principles of hardening (Higgins 12.2) See Higgins Fig 12.1 (ii) Tempered Martensite Water-quenched from 850°C and tempered at 400°C - tempered martensite, the crystals of which have become darkened by precipitated particles of cementite Tempered Martensite http://pwatlas.mt.umist.ac.uk Engineering Materials and Processes 8

Principles of hardening (Higgins 12.2) See Higgins Fig 12.1 (iii) Martensite / Bainite Oil quenched from 850°C - the slower cooling rate during quenching has allowed a mixture of bainite (dark) and martensite (light) to form. Bainite is softer than martensite. Martensite and Bainite http://www.matcoinc.com Bainite Engineering Materials and Processes 9

TTT diagrams (Higgins 12.2.1) Read Higgins 12.2.1: TTT curve: Time-Temperature-Transformation Hardness is dependent on the cooling rate. Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

TTT diagrams (Higgins 12.2.1) Read Higgins 12.2.1: Engineering Materials and Processes

TTT diagrams (Higgins 12.2.1) Read Higgins 12.2.cting cooling rates: Engineering Materials and Processes

TTT diagrams (Higgins 12.2.3) Read Higgins 12.2.3 Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

The hardening process (Higgins 12.3) Read Higgins 12.3: Hypo-eutectoid steel: Heat to 30-50°C above UCT temperature, and then quenched at appropriate rate. Hyper-eutectoid steel: Quenching from about 30°C above the LCT. Since cementite is present, cooling from above the UCT tends to precipitate as long, brittle needles along the grain boundaries of the austenite. This is a poor structure so its formation is prevented by continuing to forge the steel whilst the primary Cementite is being deposited – (between UCT and LCT). This breaks the needles into globules from which cooling can be done. If subsequent heat-treatment goes more than 30°C over LCT the primary Cementite will dissolve into the Austenite and precipitate back to needles on cooling. Engineering Materials and Processes

The hardening process (Higgins 12.3) Read Higgins 12.3 When a hyper-eutectoid steel has been correctly hardened, its structure should consist of small, near spherical globules of very hard Cementite in a matrix of hard, strong martensite. (Figure 12.5) Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Tempering (Higgins 12.4) Read Higgins 12.4 Tempering Fully hardened carbon steel is brittle. Tempering adds toughness but maintains most of the hardness and strength. As we have seen, the Martensitic structure in hardened steel consists essentially of ferrite which is heavily super-saturated with carbon. By heating to a high enough temperature, the carbon starts to precipitate into tiny particles of Cementite. Low tempering temperatures (200-300°C) are for hardness Higher temperatures (400-600°C) for stressed parts that need strength, toughness, and general reliability. Engineering Materials and Processes

Tempering (Higgins 12.4) Read Higgins 12.4 Tempering Lovett Engineering Materials and Processes

Tempering (Higgins 12.4) Read Higgins 12.4 Tempering Refer Higgins Table 12.3 Heat treatments and typical uses of plain-carbon steels Engineering Materials and Processes

Tempering (Higgins 12.4) Engineering Materials and Processes Refer Higgins Table 12.3: Heat treatments and typical uses of plain-carbon steels Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Tempering (Higgins 12.4) Engineering Materials and Processes Refer Higgins Table 12.3: Heat treatments and typical uses of plain-carbon steels Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Isothermal Heat Treatments (Higgins 12.5) The risk of cracking and distortion during the quenching of carbon steels reduced martempering and austempering. These processes are known as isothermal heat-treatments. (READ HIGGINS 12.5.1, 12.5.2, 12.5.3) Higgins (i) Martempering (ii) Austempering Engineering Materials and Processes

Hardenability (Higgins 12.6) Quenching of thick sections can result in an outer shell of martensite, the core may be of bainite, or even fine pearlite. This is the 'mass effect' of heat treatment. Plain-carbon steel has ‘a shallow depth of hardening', or, ‘poor hardenability'. Hardenability: The depth of martensitic hardening produced by quenching. This can leave the inside softer than the outside – which may (or may not) be a good thing. Engineering Materials and Processes

Hardenability (Higgins 12.6.1) 12.6.1 Ruling section Alloying elements help to reduce the critical rate so oil-quenching can be used, or water quenching can reach deeper. The limiting ruling section is the maximum diameter which can be heat-treated (under conditions of quenching and tempering suggested by the manufacturer) Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Jominy Test (Higgins 12.7) Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Jominy Test (Higgins 12.7) Higgins Engineering Materials and Processes

Heat Treatment Furnaces (Higgins 12.8) READ HIGGINS 12.8 Engineering Materials and Processes

Video: Heat Treatment: BBC: 1981 Heat treatment [videorecording] / producer Brian Davies. Video: Discusses the use of heat which changes the properties of metals. Outlines different techniques including hardening, tempering, annealing, normalising as well as a non-heat process, cold-working. Recommended viewing: All Engineering Materials and Processes

Online Resources. Teach yourself phase diagrams Handout Wikipedia: http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/mmg/teaching/phasediagrams/i2a.html Heat Treatment: BBC: Heat treatment [videorecording] / producer Brian Davies. [B.B.C.], 1981. Video: Discusses the use of heat which changes the properties of metals. Outlines different techniques including hardening, tempering, annealing, normalising as well as a non-heat process, cold-working. Wikipedia: h ttp://www.matweb.com S how this website on screen. Will be using this later. Engineering Materials and Processes 28

Super saturated solution Critical cooling rate Tempering GLOSSARY Martensite Bainite Super saturated solution Critical cooling rate Tempering Martempering Austempering Ruling section Jominy Test http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GFst2IQBEM Engineering Materials and Processes 29

Define all the glossary terms. QUESTIONS Moodle XML: Some questions in 10105 Steel Define all the glossary terms. Why are isothermal heat treatments of carbon steel limited to thin sections? Why are there a range of different quenching fluids? When a carbon steel is quenched, which grain structure causes hardness? If a quenched steel is too hard, what process can be used to toughen it? On the TTT curve for a particular carbon steel, what advantage is there in avoiding the ‘nose’ of the curve – as isothermal heat treatments do? List iron grain structures that are super-saturated with carbon. Describe the difference between heat treatment of hypo and hyper-eutectoid steels. Why is hyper-eutectoid more complicated? Describe the Jominy test. What does it measure? Describe how Critical Cooling rate can be modified by %C or alloys elements. Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of the three carburising methods shown in the video: Pack carburising , cyanide and plasma. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GFst2IQBEM Engineering Materials and Processes 30