How are modes of reproduction related to modes of livelihood? Human Reproduction How are modes of reproduction related to modes of livelihood?

Modes of Reproduction (1 of 2) 4 Modes of Reproduction (1 of 2) 4.1 Illustrate how modes of reproduction are related to modes of livelihood. The Foraging Mode of Reproduction The Agricultural Mode of Reproduction The Industrial/Digital Mode of Reproduction

Modes of Reproduction (2 of 2) Population change is determined by combined effect of: Fertility: number of births in a given population per woman Mortality: number of deaths in a given population

The Foraging Mode of Reproduction Characteristics Moderate death and birth rates Fertility constrained biologically by high levels of physical activity and low body fat of women Value of children: moderate

The Agricultural Mode of Reproduction High birth rates, declining death rates Value of children: high Pronatalist techniques Increased reliance on direct means of birth control Increasing specialization: midwives, herbalists Example: the Old Order Amish of the United States and Canada

Culturama: The Old Order Amish of the United States and Canada (1 of 3) Christians who live in rural areas of United States and Canada Population around 250,000 Migrated from Switzerland beginning in the early eighteenth century to avoid religious persecution Speak a German-derived dialect

Map 4.1 Old Order Amish Population of North America Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana have the largest number of Old Order Amish in the United States.

Culturama: The Old Order Amish of the United States and Canada (2 of 3) Old Order Amish have high fertility rates Average six to seven births per woman Overall population is doubling every 20 years Youth decide whether to be baptized into the faith at age 16; around 90 percent decide to accept Amish ways and be baptized Rumspringa is their opportunity to experience the English world

Culturama: The Old Order Amish of the United States and Canada (3 of 3) Economic Change among the Old Order Amish Growing involvement in non-farming activities such as small businesses Cultural accommodation to business world by selling at home to keep family together Some working away, with the “English”

The Industrial/Digital Mode of Reproduction (1 of 2) Follows the demographic transition Below-replacement-level fertility in many contexts Value of children: mixed

Figure 4.2 Model of the Demographic Transition Source: Nebel, Bernard J.; Wright, Richard T.; Environmental Science: The Way The World Works, 7th edition. Copyright © 2000. Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

The Industrial/Digital Mode of Reproduction (2 of 2) Three Characteristics Stratified reproduction Middle- and upper-class families have fewer children, but higher survival rates Among the poor, fertility and mortality rates are both high Population aging Importance of scientific knowledge and technology in managing reproduction