Consequences of Cross-cultural Exchanges on Pre-modern Societies

Social Conversion: The Broader Process by Which Pre-modern Peoples Adopted or Adapted to Foreign Cultural Traditions

Three Patterns of Cross-cultural Conversion

1. Conversion Through Voluntary Association Why? Ans. Incentives Prospects for political, economic or commercial alliances with well-organized foreigners

Who Were the Principal Instigators to Trade? Merchants Engaged in long-distance trade Established diaspora communities Brought in cultural authorities such as priests, monks, or qadis Extended benefits to the ruling elite

Example: The Introduction of Islam to the East African Trading Civilizations Such As Mogadishu, Mombassa, Kilwa, Great Zimbabwe, or Sofala

The ? Of Conversion Itself Is it genuine or is it faked What are the individual’s motives Manipulation vs. Personal commitment

2. Conversion Through Political, Social, or Economic Pressure Sometimes involved a choice between the sword and the conquerors’ beliefs and values Usually occurred through the mass migration of peoples or military campaigns

Example: Constantine, the Roman Emperor Converts to Christianity in the Early 4th Century. The Imperial Government Increasingly Favors Christianity and Restricts Pagan Cults

3. Conversion Through Assimilation The process by which a minority group adapted to the cultural standards of the majority group, eventually adopting its values and beliefs

Example: Visigoths and Other Germanic Peoples Sought Political, Social, and Economic Participation in the Roman Empire of the 4th Century, and Thus Converted to Christianity

What Other Factors Facilitated the Large-scale Conversion of Whole Societies to New Cultural Traditions?

Syncretism: The Blending of Different Cultural Elements in Such a Way As to Produce an Altogether New Cultural Tradition

Example: The Introduction of Buddhism to China Buddhist values differed radically from Confucian traditional Chinese values Buddhist monastic celibacy vs. large Chinese families

Traditional Chinese Confucian Family Values Buddhist Mon- One Son In the Mon- astery would bring salvation to ten generations of kin Traditional Chinese Confucian Family Values Buddhist Mon- astic Celibacy

An Important Point to Remember: The Three Patterns of Social Conversion and Syncretism Rarely Occurred in Isolation, and Often Combined in Various Ways to Form New Cultural Constructs

Responses of Pre-modern Peoples to Foreign Cultural Challenges and Opportunities

Responses: Social Conversion: 3 types Syncretism Resistance: Passive vs. Aggressive Ignore it or Rebel Against it

It Took Approximately 400 – 500 Years for a New Cultural Tradition to Fully Integrate Itself Into the Gaining Society

3 Important Intra-continental Developments Brought About by Cross-cultural Exchanges in Pre-modern Times

1. The Emergence and Expansion of Complex, City-based Civilizations Provided order and stability to society Imperial expansion and the desire to trade linked civilizations together

2. The Development of the Notion of “Barbarianism” In Greek usage, barbarian referred to someone who did not speak Greek By about the 800’s B.C.E., barbarian started to take on strong connotations of inferiority

Roman and Chinese Attitudes Towards Barbarians Rome developed an aggressive and sometimes violent policy towards encroaching Germanic tribes Settled Chinese agriculturalists came to regard steppe-dwelling nomads as barbarians

3. Military Developments in the Nomadic Societies of the Steppes As early as 900 B.C.E., steppe people had begun to experiment with cavalry formations and tactics Their equestrian skills gave them a devastating advantage over their settled counterparts

Nomadic Steppe Peoples Became a Serious Threat to Settled Peoples for Centuries Because of Their Swift-moving Cavalry Units

Nomadic Peoples Were Ultimately Responsible for the Collapse of the Han (Xiongnu) and the Roman (Visigoths) Empires