Sports in Society: Issues & Controversies Chapter 11 Sports and the Economy: What Are the Characteristics of Commercial Sports?

Conditions for Emergence & Growth of Commercial Sports A market economy Large, densely populated cities People who have time, money, transportation, & media access Large amounts of capital Culture emphasizing consumption and material status symbols

Class Relations and Commercial Sports The preferences and priorities of people with power and wealth often influence which sports are commercialized – for example: Golf is enjoyed by wealthy and powerful; it receives much TV coverage despite low ratings Football reproduces an ideology that privileges men & celebrates masculinity

Why have sports become so popular in society today? The quest for excitement Emphasis on success ideology Widespread organized, competitive youth sports Widespread media coverage

Economic Motives and the Globalization of Commercial Sports Sport organizations look for global markets FIFA, the NFL, the NBA, etc. seek global media exposure and expansion Corporations use sports as vehicles for global expansion One goal is to make money Another goal is to sponsor enjoyment and pleasure to establish ideological outposts in the minds of people around the world

Figure 11.1 CEOs and owners often play games that ignore athletes

Ideological Outposts in Action: Branding Sports Sport places have been branded Sport events have been branded Athletes have been branded -Corporate branding is now accepted by many people as necessary, non-political, even “natural” Question: Isn’t that sure sign of outposts in action?

Commercialization and Changes in Sports Changes may occur in the: Structure and goals of sports Orientations of athletes, coaches, and sponsors Organizations that sponsor and control sports

Changes in Structure and Goals Rule changes are made to make action more exciting, understandable, and profitable by Speeding up action Increasing scores and scoring chances Balancing competition Maximizing dramatic moments Providing commercial breaks The GOAL: create a TOTAL ENTERTAINMENT EXPERIENCE

Figure 11.2 Why did the XFL fail? Too much commercialization, or not the right kind?

The Origins of Heroic Action in Sports Commercial sports are ENTERTAINMENT Commercial entertainment depends on attracting a mass audience Members of a mass audience lack technical knowledge about a sport Entertaining people without technical knowledge requires heroic action actions

Commercial Sports Involve A Shift From Aesthetic to Heroic Orientations Beauty and pleasure of movement Emphasis on mastery of technical skills Willingness to explore limits Commitment to staying involved Heroic Orientations Danger & excitement of movement Emphasis on style & dramatic expression Willingness to go beyond limits Commitment to success of sponsor

Figure 11.3 Shifting orientations: what happens when there is a need to entertain a mass audience

The Promotional Culture of Professional Wrestling Emphasis is on heroic action Events are dramatic spectacles Players display carefully constructed personas Storylines are simple; they emphasize domination, gender differences, & capricious bosses

Spectator Appeal in Sports Depends on: The uncertainty of an event’s outcome The stakes associated with an event The anticipated display of excellence, heroics, or dramatic displays by participants

With commercialization: Sport Organizations With commercialization: Control shifts away from athletes; decisions are less likely to reflect their interests Control shifts toward owners, corporate sponsors, advertisers, media personnel, marketing & publicity staff, professional management staff, accountants, & agents Athletes accept the decisions of these people, because their financial interests are at stake

Owners, Sponsors, & Promoters of Professional Sports When the diversity of professional sports is taken into consideration: Owners are a diversified collection of people – usually white men. Profits may be great in leagues where monopoly control and TV revenues are high; but losses may be great under other conditions.

This looks extreme, but hasn’t it already happened? "

Advantages of Monopoly Teams owners in the major men’s pro sports have established monopolies that enable them to: Control athlete movement Negotiate high media rights fees Prevent the formation of new teams Share revenues

Forms of Public Assistance for Team Owners Use of public funds to construct and maintain facilities Deduction loopholes to use on tax returns Tax breaks and rebates Control of revenues in public facilities

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments For A stadium and team create jobs Stadium construction infuses money into the local economy Team will attract other businesses Team will attract media attention that boosts tourism, product sales and economic development Team will create positive psychic and social benefits

Stadium Subsidies: Arguments Against Stadium jobs are seasonal and low paying except for athletes & execs Construction materials often are purchased outside the local area New businesses often are franchises headquartered in other cities Discretionary money is limited and may be shifted away from other businesses Promoting macho orientations does not benefit everyone in a community

Sources of Income for Team Owners Gate receipts/ticket sales Sale of media rights (TV/radio) Stadium revenues Leases on club seats and luxury boxes Concessions/parking/leasing spaces to others Sale of naming rights and site advertising Special events/concerts/meetings Licensing fees and merchandise sales

New stadiums resemble shopping malls. Figure 11.5 New stadiums resemble shopping malls.

Amateur Sports Are self-funded and dependent on corporate sponsors, or funded through a central government sports authority All amateur sport organizations share an interest in two things: Power & Money

Legal Status of Athletes in Pro Team Sports Forms of the “reserve system” have been used to restrict the freedom of athletes to play where they wish Players’ associations and unions have challenged this system and struggled for “free agency” Free agency has been achieved to varying degrees in major team sports Labor rights for athletes in minor sports are limited

Legal Status of Athletes in Individual Sports Varies greatly from sport to sport and athlete to athlete Status often depends on what athletes must do to support their training and competition Status may be partially protected by professional associations formed by the athletes

Income: Team Sports The large majority of pro athletes make limited income The super-contracts and mega-salaries of a few athletes have distorted popular ideas about athlete income Income among top athletes has risen recently because Legal status and rights have improved League revenues have increased

Income: Individual Sports Many athletes do not make enough to pay expenses There are increasing disparities between top money winners and other athletes Top male heavyweight boxers have traditionally made the most money Question: does this mean that athletes are rewarded for reaffirming certain ideologies?

Amateur Athletes Rights depend on the governing bodies that control various sports Income depends on The rules of governing bodies Endorsements that vary with celebrity status and corporate interest Most intercollegiate athletes in the U.S. are controlled completely by the NCAA; they have few rights