Matter and Change Matter = has volume and mass Element = cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical or chemical means. Each element has unique physical and chemical properties. Elements are made-up of atoms.

Subatomic particles of Atoms Protons = Found in the nucleus of an atom and have a positive charge. They have a mass of about 1 amu. It is the number of protons in the atom that determines what the element will be… Atomic Number What is the Atomic Number of the element Carbon? How many protons are in an atom of Carbon? http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/asset/phy03_int_ptable/ http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/asset/lsps07_int_theatom/

Image result for how caves are formed Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone. Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air and as it percolates through the soil, which turns into a weak acid. This slowly dissolves out the limestone along the joints, bedding planes and fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.

Processes and Forces Affecting the Lithosphere

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are rocks? amethyst http://geology.about.com/ Most are a mixture of minerals Some are organic (non-mineral matter) like coal They are naturally occurring They are solids made up of mineral or mineral-like matter

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are the 3 types of rocks? Tumbled rocks http://geology.com/rocks/ Igneous - made from cooling magma Sedimentary – made of sediments compacted and/or cemented together Metamorphic – rocks changed by heat and/or pressure

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What is the rock cycle? http://www.beyondbooks.com/ Magma cools to form igneous rock any rock can be weathered and eroded to form sedimentary rock Any rock can be changed by heat or pressure to form metamorphic rock These changes occur over and over again The rock cycle is powered by energy from the sun (sedimentary) and the Earth’s interior (igneous and metamorphic)

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are igneous rocks like? Obsidian http://geology.com There are two types of igneous rocks: Intrusive rocks form when magma hardens beneath the Earth’s surface Extrusive rocks form when lava hardens on the Earth’s surface

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are igneous rocks like? Pumice http://geology.com Igneous rocks are grouped by texture Fine grained Coarse grained Porphyritic (different crystal sizes) Slow cooling produces large crystals Fast cooling produces small crystals Very fast cooling produces no crystals (glassy texture)

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are sedimentary rocks like? Sandstone http://geology.com The following flow chart summarizes the formation of sedimentary rocks: Weathering of rock > Erosion > Deposition > Cementation and compaction Ripple marks in the rock mean it was formed by water Only sedimentary rocks contain fossils.

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are metamorphic rocks like? gneiss http://geology.com They are formed below Earth’s surface by heat and pressure They may be foliated (show banding) or nonfoliated Some agents of metamorphism are heat, pressure, hydrothermal solution (contact with very hot water) or any combination of these.

Rocks and the Rock Cycle What are the two kinds of metamorphism? Marble http://geology.com Contact metamorphism occurs when heat from magma touches other rocks and changes them Regional metamorphism occurs when very large areas of rock are changed by heat and pressure

Evidence? Evidence for continental drift Matching fossils on different continents The continental puzzle Matching rock types and structures Evidence of ancient climates that were different than today (glaciers near the equator) http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

Continental Drift The continental drift hypothesis Proposed by Alfred Wegener (in 1915) states that all continents were once joined into one supercontinent called Pangaea About 200 million years ago Pangaea began breaking up http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

Plate Tectonics The Theory of Plate Tectonics The lithosphere is divided into plates that move. The asthenosphere is only semi-solid and allows the plates to move. There are 7 major plates and many smaller ones http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

Plate Boundaries: Divergent There are 3 main kinds of plate boundaries. Divergent   Oceanic: Sea floor spreading produces new lithosphere. Rocks close to the rift are young. The age is determined by ocean drilling. Continental: East African rift valley www.geology.com/nsta/divergent-plate-boundaries.shtml

Convergent Boundaries An oceanic-continental boundary produces a subduction zone where lithosphere is destroyed by melting http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

Convergent Boundaries continued A continental-continental plate boundary produces mountains. The Himalayan mountains were produced when India crashed (very slowly) into Asia http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

Transform Fault Boundaries www.geology.com/nsta/transform-plate-boundaries.shtml Transform fault boundaries occur where 2 plates grind past each other without creating or destroying lithosphere. The San Andreas fault in California is an example of this. It has caused many earthquakes to occur.

Mechanisms of Plate Movement What are some mechanisms of plate movement? http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/interior/how_plates_move.html Ridge push happens at spreading centers where plates are moving apart. Slab pull happens at subduction zones where one plate is pulled down into the mantle Mantle Convection occurs when magma heats up, rises, cools, then sinks.

Evidence Ocean Drilling – rocks get older as you move away from a divergent boundary http://www.slideshare.net/bjansen/sea-floor-spreading

More Evidence More Evidence for Plate Tectonics Hot Spots – The Hawaiian Islands were formed by a hot spot (a mantle plume) The mantle plume doesn’t move but the lithospheric plate over it DOES. This creates a chain of islands. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/hotspots.html

Evidence Paleomagnetism – rocks containing iron show the location of the magnetic poles at the time they were formed. http://www.slideshare.net/bjansen/sea-floor-spreading

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil What is weathering? http://diyarbakirloya.com/chemical-weathering-pictures&page=2g Breaking up rocks into sediments

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil Two kinds of weathering http://www.sciencephoto.com/images/imagePopUpDetails.html?pop=1&id=670055123&pviewid=&country=67&search=&matchtype=FUZZY Mechanical- no change in chemical composition Examples: frost wedging roots breaking up rock animals burrowing rocks falling

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil Two kinds of weathering http://img.ehow.com/article-page-main/ehow-uk/images/a05/5p/00/chemical-weathering-process-800x800.jpg Chemical – chemical changes in the composition of rocks Examples: acid rain plants with acid in their roots water containing carbonic acid forming caves

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil Climate and Weathering www.photon-echoes.com Climates with more rain will have more chemical weathering Climates with 4 seasons (more freeze and thaw cycles) will have more mechanical weathering

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl Deposition It is the movement of sediments Agents of erosion include: wind, water, gravity, glaciers. It is the dropping or depositing of sediments The main agent of deposition is gravity

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil What are the components of soil A little dirt never hurts? http://www.flickr.com/photos/65819195@N00/4622764184/ Organic matter (humus) Mineral matter Water Air

Weathering, Erosion, and Soil The Effect of Human Activity on Soil Erosion www.google.com/images Logging (cutting trees) Clearing land for construction Plowing land for farming

http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AC172E/AC172E04.htm#ch4.8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Nd77C0B5cg Components of Soil http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.earthsys.caveform/how-caves-form/

Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone Caves are formed by the dissolution of limestone. Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air and as it percolates through the soil, which turns into a weak acid. This slowly dissolves out the limestone along the joints, bedding planes and fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.